Qing Research Articles

ОСВОЕНИЕ КИТАЙСКИХ ТЕРРИТОРИЙ РОССИЕЙ И ГЕРМАНИЕЙ В КОНЦЕ XIX в.: СХОДСТВА И РАЗЛИЧИЯ

The paper focuses on comparison of the Sino-German treaty respecting the lease of Kiao-Chau (1898) and the Sino-Russian convention for lease of Port Arthur and Talienwan (1898), on an analysis of Russian and German plans in relation to Chinese territories, on considering the dynamics of solutions in this direction, preliminary agreements with the Qing Empire. The topicality stems from the need to detail the imperial past of the powers, to clarify how each empire approached the process of mastering the territory of the other state. The chosen angle allowed to draw attention not only to the similarities between the foreign policies of Russia and Germany in relation to the Qing Empire, but also to identify significant differences. The study was based on the methods of source analysis, comparative analysis. Russia and Germany concluded lease agreements with the Qing Empire, which differed significantly in a number of terms. According to Sino-Russian convention, supreme rights to the territory remained with the Qing state; the lease term was 25 years; the clause about railway construction widened the scope of the concession already granted. In the Sino-German treaty the transfer of supreme rights to the kaiser state, the lease term of 99 years, and an agreement to build railway lines that extended well beyond the leased territory were all recorded. Both powers had occupied the Qing domains before the agreements were concluded, but they went about legislating in different ways.

On the Reasons for the Failure of the Northern Expedition of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom

In 1853, after the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom officially established its capital in Nanjing, in order to expand the revolution throughout the country, completely defeat the Qing government, and establish a national political power, it successively carried out major strategic military operations such as the Northern Expedition and the Western Expedition. However, the highly anticipated Northern Expedition stopped at Tianjin and ultimately failed, leaving a tragic scene in the history of the Taiping Rebellion, which made future generations lament. The main reason for this is due to the mistakes in the military strategic guidance of the Taiping Army and the insufficient logistical support for food and other supplies caused by the deepening of the Northern Expedition. The Northern Expedition is certainly worthy of recognition, but its experiences and less

Developing Encounters between Chinese and Western Art: The Contribution of Two Jesuits in China in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

This article explores the introduction and influence of Western art in China during the Ming and Qing dynasties, focusing on the role of the Jesuits—especially Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), one of the founders of Catholic missionary work in China—and the most famous and influential Western figure in China’s art history, Giuseppe Castiglione (1688–1766). The Jesuits recognized art’s potential in their missionary efforts. The article examines the varied responses of Chinese literati to Western art theories in the 17th and 18th centuries, and how Jesuit-introduced artistic concepts were assimilated within different Chinese contexts. It also investigates how Western art merged into Chinese culture, noting the linguistic integration of concepts like chiaroscuro. In Ricci’s time, Western art intrigued the Chinese, but deep acceptance and conceptual transformation were limited. The assimilation of Western techniques was not as widespread as expected. In the 18th century, due to restrictions on Christianity, the religious role of painting diminished. Castiglione’s hybrid style, though influential in the Qing court, faced challenges in gaining cultural acceptance from the Han literati, leading to more criticism than in Ricci’s era. Despite these challenges and varying receptions, the contributions of Ricci and Castiglione to the Sino–Western art exchange are significant, reflecting the complex interplay of art, religion, and cultural dynamics across these periods.

Interpretation of associative cultural landscape based on text mining of poetry: taking Tianmu Mountain on the Road of Tang Poetry in Eastern Zhejiang as an example

AbstractRevealing the association between natural elements and “religion, culture, or art” through text mining of poetry provides a new perspective for in-depth interpretation of Associative Cultural Landscape. Taking Tianmu Mountain, an important spot on the Road of Tang Poetry in Eastern Zhejiang, as an example, this study focuses on 444 poems written by 269 poets from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty in the Tianmu Mountain region. Text mining methods, such as text segmentation and social network analysis, are employed to conduct frequency statistics and association analysis of Landscape Terms in the poetry. The findings are as follows: (1) The descriptions in the poems bear witness to the beautiful and diverse Natural Landscape, the abundant Humanistic Landscape, and the unique Folk Landscape of Tianmu Mountain. These collectively reflect Tianmu Mountain with its religious features of cultivating both Buddhism and Taoism, cultural features of accumulating abundance and influence, as well as artistic features of blending picturesque charm and poetic grace. (2) The Cultural Landscape of Tianmu Mountain described in poetry across different dynasties exhibits characteristics of four relationships: “Group Relationship, Hierarchical Relationship, Interactive Relationship, and Cognitive Relationship.” It reveals the close association between natural elements in the Tianmu Mountain and “religion, culture, or art.” The research has constructed a theoretical model for interpreting the Multi-relationship within Associative Cultural Landscape, as well as provide the support of theories and methods for understanding the characteristics and interpreting the association of global Associative Cultural Landscape. It offers crucial scientific foundations for their overall conservation and sustainable utilization.

Analysis of the Ugly Female Images in "Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio" from the Perspective of Bourdieu's Sociological Theory

Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio is a collection of classical Chinese short stories created by Pu Songling, a Qing Dynasty novelist in China. It is known as a representative work of ancient Chinese classical short stories. Since its inception, it has been loved by the public and subsequently translated into multiple languages, spreading overseas. The English version of Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio, translated by British sinologist Minford in 2006, was published by Penguin Publishing, a leading publishing house in the UK, and is listed as one of the Penguin Classic series. This article will analyze the unique translation behavior of Minford's translation from the perspective of Bourdieu's sociological theory. In Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio, Pu Songling portrays a series of ugly female characters, such as Lin Shi, Lv Wubing, Qiao Nu, etc. Although these women are not beautiful in appearance, they possess a beautiful mind of wisdom, kindness, and righteousness. Pu Songling used the method of comparing beauty and ugliness to describe them, greatly enhancing the artistic charm of Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio, while expressing his own ideals and reflecting his unique aesthetic pursuit of progressive women's views.

Microbes on the "peachy spots" of ancient Kaihua paper: microbial community and functional analysis.

Kaihua paper is a type of precious hand-made paper in China that has been used throughout Chinese history. Due to its extraordinary whiteness and fine texture, it was adopted by the imperial palace in the reign of Emperor Kang Xi and Yong Zheng of the Qing Dynasty of China in the 17th and 18th century. It is stained by a special type of yellowish-brown spot after years of storage, which is called a "peachy spot." The formation of such spots remains unclear, although complicated physicochemical processes or microbial activities might be involved. We performed nondestructive sampling and high-throughput sequencing on peachy spot surfaces, unstained areas, and air samples in the stack room to analysis the the bacterial and fungal communities, and performed prediction of functional genes of the bacterial communities. The results showed that peachy spot formation was mainly related to bacterial communities rather than fungal communities. Significantly more potential acid- producing, acidophilic or cellulase-producing bacteria, such as, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and Lysinibacillus, and pigment-producing bacteria, such as Methylobacterium and Rubrobacter, were identified in the peachy spot samples. Prediction of the functional genes of the bacterial community also suggested the production of acidic substance pigments. These findings provide new insights into the pigment formation mechanism in ancient paper and open an opportunity to develop new strategies to preserve the ancient paper documents.

Influencing Mechanism of Tidal Disasters on Locust Breeding Area Evolution in the Eastern Coastal Area of China during the Ming and Qing Dynasties

Locust plagues and tidal disasters are primary natural hazards in China’s eastern coastal regions, yet their interrelationship remains unclear. This study, drawing on historical documents from the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911 AD), focuses on Zhejiang Province and its Hangzhou Bay coastline, areas typically affected by tidal disasters. Employing advanced quantitative analysis and spatiotemporal models, the research aims to reveal the mechanisms behind tidal disasters and their impact on locust population dynamics. The findings indicate a limited spatiotemporal correlation between locust plagues and tidal or drought disasters but a significant association with flooding. The relationship between locust infestations and floods is notably strong in the unique geographical context of Hangzhou Bay’s northern shore. The ‘hydromarginal’ nature of the north coast creates an ideal habitat for locusts. This study pioneers in identifying flooding as a crucial mediator between tidal disasters and locust plagues, shedding light on the ‘typhoon-tidal-flood-locust’ disaster sequence and offering new insights into understanding and mitigating natural disasters in the region. In this study, we primarily employ a quantitative methodology, utilizing advanced data analysis and sophisticated spatiotemporal modeling to investigate the interplay between locust plagues and tidal disasters. Although some progress has been made in the study of historical natural disasters, systematic studies of the relationship between tidal floods and locust breeding sites along the east coast of China during the Ming and Qing dynasties are still scarce. This study fills this gap by employing advanced GIS and time series analysis techniques, combining traditional historical documentary studies with modern scientific methods and providing a new methodological approach to the analysis of historical disaster patterns.

An Analysis of the Relationship between River Engineering and Water Conservancy Construction and State Capacity in the early and middle periods of the Qing Dynasty (A.D. 1644 - A.D. 1820)

The study in this paper focuses on the relationship between the financial situation related to river engineering and water conservancy and state capacity in the early and middle periods of the Qing Dynasty. There have been some controversies in the study of state capacity in the Qing Dynasty. Taking the governance of the Yongding River in the Kangxi Dynasty and the governance of the Jiangsu and Zhejiang Seawalls in the Yongzheng and Qianlong Dynasties as examples, this paper argues that in the river engineering and water conservancy construction in the early and middle periods of the Qing Dynasty, the expenditures were not only supported by the part of the total amount of regular fiscal income, but by the positive extra revenue other than regular fiscal income. This fact suggests that the state’s capacity in the early and middle periods of the Qing Dynasty was recognizable in handling practical affairs and might not be as weak as it appeared.

Exploring the effect of Anshen Dingzhi prescription on hippocampal mitochondrial signals in single prolonged stress mouse model

Headings ethnopharmacological relevanceAnshen Dingzhi prescription (ADP), which was first published in the masterpiece of traditional Chinese Medicine in the Qing Dynasty, “Yi Xue Xin Wu" (1732 CE), is documented to interrupt panic-related disorders. However, the mechanism of its action is still not clear. Aim of the studyThis study aims to investigate the effects of ADP on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)-like behaviors and explore the mechanism from perspective of sirtuin1 (SIRT1)-peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma co-activator 1 alpha (PGC-1α)-dependent mitochondrial function. Materials and methodsThe changes of SIRT1-PGC-1α signal and mitochondrial function were evaluated in the hippocampus of mice receiving single prolonged stress (SPS). Later, the roles of this signaling pathway played in fear memory generalization and anxiety-like behavior in SPS mice was investigated using two agonists of this signaling pathway. On this basis, the effects of ADP (36.8 mg/kg) with definite therapeutic effects, on mitochondrial function were investigated and further confirmed by a SIRT1 inhibitor. Finally, the possible components of ADP targeting PGC-1α were monitored through bioinformatics. ResultsCompared with control mice, SIRT1-PGC-1α signal in the hippocampus was impaired in SPS mice, accompanied with dysfunction of mitochondria and abnormal expression of synaptic proteins. The agonists of SIRT1-PGC-1α signal, ZLN005, as well as resveratrol improved the behavioral changes of mice caused by SPS, reversed the decline of proteins in SIRT1-PGC-1α signal, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the abnormal expression of synaptic proteins. The fingerprint was established for the quality control of ADP. At a dose of 36.8 mg/kg, ADP could prevent fear memory generalization and anxiety-like behavior in SPS mice. Mechanically, ADP promoted SIRT1-PGC-1α signal and repaired mitochondrial function. Importantly, SIRT1 inhibitor, selisistat eliminated the ameliorative effects of ADP on behavioral and mitochondrial function. Through molecular docking simulation, the brain-entering components of ADP, including malkangunin, Rg5, fumarine, frutinone A, celabenzine, and inermin had high binding energy with PGC-1α. ConclusionDysfunction of SIRT1-PGC-1α-dependent mitochondrial function is attributed to SPS-triggered fear generalization and anxiety-like behavior, and ADP could improve PTSD-like behaviors likely through activating this signaling pathway.

The Influence of Prince Yi Yunxiang on the Court Art of the Yongzheng Reign

During the Yongzheng reign, the court arts, including painting, porcelain, enamelware, snuff bottles, furniture, etc., reached a remarkably high level. This was not only attributed to the personal artistic cultivation and aesthetic preferences of Emperor Yongzheng but also, crucially, to the direct management of the Office of Palace Affairs by Prince Yi Yunxiang. Yunxiang shared an inseparable bond with Emperor Yongzheng since childhood, and he was well aware of the emperor's preferences. Yunxiang himself possessed excellent taste, enabling him to better implement Emperor Yongzheng's aesthetic preferences and establish the "Internal Court Respectful Production" style. Furthermore, Yunxiang led the utilization of Western missionaries, infusing fresh vitality into Qing court art and creating a distinctive aesthetic trend in the Yongzheng era.

Weak central government, strong legal rights: the origins of divergent legal institutions in 18th-century Chinese and Japanese rice markets

This paper examines the formation of legal institutions in Qing China and Tokugawa Japan with a focus on the rice market. In both countries in the 18th century, rice was the most important commodity. By the end of 18th century, Japan offered strong legal rights to rice market participants, while China managed the rice market with weak legal institutions. We develop a subversive regime game model to explain some of the social and political reasons behind this divergence. Supported by historical evidence from Qing China and Tokugawa Japan, we find that with lower suppression capacity and high risks of domestic threats to power, Edo Japan’s central government (Bakufu) was more likely to enforce legal rights than Qing China’s central government (Imperial Court). Japan’s institutional configuration facilitated the growth of rice markets such as the Doujima market in Osaka, because participants did not need to invest as much in informal protections for their own rights. Moreover, our analysis suggests that a state’s relative strength matters the most in determining its attitude toward legal rights, which further influences the state’s stability and longevity.

Why Donate: The Famine Relief Sponsorship in Qing China

When disaster occurred in Qing Dynasty, some of the rich people, say gentry and merchants, were willing to make great contributions on relief. According to sources, donations for relief had some benefits for them. Not merely can they gain official titles with self-identity and superiority, but can convert “cultural capital” into upwardly mobile political chances and strengthen a say in local politics, propelling them into positions of power. Therefore, when making a substantial payment on relief, in exchange, contributors using symbols paid attention on the importance of cultural hegemony in maintaining their positions in local society. The observation of the relief donation in the Qing Dynasty made it a site to study not just how people dealt with the famine policy within structure and what the social mechanism at the time developed.

Analysis Toward The Traditional Sports Culture Of Ethnic Minorities Contained In The Miao Albums Of Qing Dynasty

The traditional sports culture of China's ethnic minorities is a colorful aspect of China's history and heritage. One particularly interesting example is the practice of "Miao Albums" among the Miao people during the Qing Dynasty." Miao Albums" refers to a unique traditional sport commonly practiced by the Miao people in the mountainous regions of southwest China. The Qing Dynasty "Miao Albums" is an important source for the study of the history and culture of the Miao and other ethnic minorities, and it contains a wealth of sports and cultural elements. These elements not only reflect the sports activities and lifestyles of the ethnic minorities at that time, but also provide valuable historical information for today's sports research. Through the analysis of the Miao Albums in the Qing Dynasty, the traditional sports culture. As a precious historical document, the qing Dynasty Miao Albums reveals the rich sports culture and life style in the Miao region. It is found that the sports activities displayed in the Qing Dynasty are diverse and unique, including archer utensils, javelin throw, wrestling, dancing, mountaineering and other forms. These activities not only reflect the sports skills and competitive spirit of the Miao people, but also reflect their aesthetic concepts and cultural traditions. At the same time, the sports costumes and props in the Miao Albums of the Qing Dynasty also show the unique national style. The combination of colorful and exquisite costumes and sports activities not only increases the appreciation, but also conveys the charm and value of the Miao culture. To sum up, the traditional sports culture of ethnic minorities carried by the Miao Albums in the Qing Dynasty shows the rich and colorful sports life, unique aesthetic concepts and cultural traditions of the Miao people.

Relationship between Famine and Climatic Disasters in China during the Qing Dynasty

Abstract Famine poses a significant threat to human food security and sustainable development. This study investigates the prevalence and magnitude of famine and its connection to climatic change/disasters at different spatiotemporal scales. The famine index was reconstructed using 13 828 famine-related literature records in China during the Qing Dynasty (CE 1644–1911). The study found that extreme drought/flood events instantaneously triggered famine at the seasonal to interannual scale, leading to intermittent occurrences of great famines. Drought-induced famine was the most prominent. Famine was positively correlated with drought in both short-term variations and long-term trends across different regions. The effect of floods on famines was double-edged and varied between the north and south of China. The severe famines that occurred between 1811 and 1878 were related to both climatic cooling and an increase in drought/flood events under a situation of growing population pressure on resources. The greatest famine of 1876–78 was probably the result of long-term interactions among intensifying human–land contradictions since the early nineteenth century, periodic droughts in north China, and a weakening of regional buffering mechanisms due to flood-induced declines in south China.

The trajectory of technological exchanges and modern communication technologies in the context of opening up to the outside world in the late Qing and early Republic of China

Abstract During the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, the development of communication technology was closely correlated with societal progress. The social turmoil in the late Qing and early Republican periods, the social situation of “internal and external problems,” and the trend of “coming in” and “going out” of technological exchanges contributed to the introduction of modern communication technology, newspapers and magazines, and the establishment of the telegraph and the telephone. This led to the introduction of modern communication technology, represented by the telegraph and telephone, as well as the rise and establishment of newspapers and magazines. The national telegraph and the May Fourth Movement further enhanced the influence of the telegraph and communication technology on social development. The study analyzes the sources of funds, the number of subscribers, the number of telephone offices, the mileage of lines, the development of governmental telegraphs in each province, and the development of telegraphs in each country. It explores the development trend of communication technology in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, taking into account the interactions between the social conditions of the late Qing Dynasty and the development of telegraphs. Based on the monthly revenue of the telephone bureau, the Beijing Telephone Bureau’s installation fee in 1909 was approximately 1,799 yuan, with the telephone fee and the Electricity Bureau’s appropriation primarily financing its construction. Towards the end of the Qing Dynasty, the Beijing Telephone Bureau extended its telegraph lines and increased the number of users. By 1911, the telegraph lines’ mileage had reached about 99,979 miles, indicating a relatively rapid development. However, the telegraph business remained significantly behind that of other countries.

The Archives of the Ming and Qing Dynasties and the “Study of Archives of the Ming and Qing Dynasties”

The Archives of the Ming and Qing Dynasties and the “Study of Archives of the Ming and Qing Dynasties”

Research progress on strontium isotope-traced plant remains production areas and implications for traceability of Dao-di herbs in Forbidden City of the Qing Dynasty

Strontium isotope(~(87)S/~(86)Sr) tracing technology has been widely used in animal remains and origin of modern food origin sources. However, due to the problems of sample contamination and cleaning, this technology has been applied less frequently in the tracing of plant remains. The Palace Museum preserves more than 1 000 relics of medicinal materials from the Forbidden City of the Qing Dynasty, which are rare precious materials for the study of Dao-di herbs. The well-preserved environment of these medicinal materials in the Forbidden City of the Qing Dynasty helps avoid external strontium contamination, making it possible to introduce strontium isotope technology in their tracing research. On this basis, this study discussed the principle of strontium isotope tracing technology and summarized the current research progress on tracing plant remains using strontium isotope. In addition, this study discussed three key problems and their respective solutions encountered when applying strontium isotope technology to the tracing research on medicinal materials from the Forbidden City of the Qing Dynasty: creating strontium isotope ratio maps, dealing with the wide range of traceable results, and addressing the sample contamination and cleaning challenges. The literature and historical materials of the Qing Dynasty are the important basis for understanding the distribution and application of Dao-di herbs in the Qing Dynasty. Based on literature research, the use of strontium isotope to trace the producing area of medicinal materials in the Forbidden City of the Qing Dynasty can provide physical evidence for relevant research. The combined evidence of historical materials and medicinal relics is expected to provide a new perspective for the study of Dao-di herbs in the Qing Dynasty and also provide a reference for the study of the revolution of Dao-di herbs producing areas.

Ideology and economic change the contrasting paths to the modern economy in late 19th century China and Japan

This paper revisits the old theses of the contrasting paths to modernization between Japan and China. It develops a new analytical framework regarding the role of ideology and ideological change—Meiji Japan's decisive turn towards the West pitted against Qing China's lethargic response to Western imperialism—as the key driver behind these contrasting paths. Our framework and historical narrative highlight the contrast between Tokugawa Japan's feudal, decentralized political regime and Qing China's centralized bureaucratic system as a key determinant driving the differential patterns of ideological realignment. We argue that the 1894–95 Japanese naval victory over China could not be justified under the prevailing Imperial Chinese ideology and thus served as the catalyst for China's subsequent ideological transformation, which occurred via borrowing Japan's successful Meiji reforms of both institutions and ideology. Our analytical framework, developed from a comparative historical narrative, sheds new insights on the importance of ideology and ideological change for our understanding of political and economic change.

The Inheritance and Change of Legal Culture: Taking the Legal System of Ming and Qing Dynasties as an Example

The Inheritance and Change of Legal Culture: Taking the Legal System of Ming and Qing Dynasties as an Example

Angong Niuhuang Wan ameliorates LPS-induced cerebrovascular edema by inhibiting blood‒brain barrier leakage and promoting the membrane expression of AQP4.

Angong Niuhuang Wan (AGNHW), developed during the Qing dynasty (18th century) for the treatment of consciousness disturbances caused by severe infections, has been used to treat brain edema caused by ischemia‒reperfusion. However, it remains unclear whether AGNHW can ameliorate vascular-origin brain edema caused by lipopolysaccharides (LPS). This study explored the ameliorative effects of AGNHW on LPS-induced cerebrovascular edema in mice, as well as the potential underlying mechanisms. A cerebrovascular edema model was established in male C57BL/6N mice by two intraperitoneal injections of LPS (15mg/kg), at 0 and 24h. AGNHW was administered by gavage at doses of 0.2275g/kg, 0.455g/kg, and 0.91g/kg, 2h after LPS administration. In control mice, normal saline (NS) or AGNHW (0.455g/kg) was administered by gavage 2h after intraperitoneal injection of NS. The survival rate, cerebral water content, cerebral venous FITC-dextran leakage, Evans blue extravasation, and expression of vascular endothelial cadherin (VE-cadherin), zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), claudin-5, phosphorylated caveolin-1 (CAV-1), and cytomembrane and cytoplasmic aquaporin 1 (AQP1) and aquaporin 4 (AQP4) were evaluated. The cerebral tissue phosphoproteome, blood levels of AGNHW metabolites, and the relationships between these blood metabolites and differentially phosphorylated proteins were analyzed. AGNHW inhibited the LPS-induced decrease in survival rate, increase in cerebral water content, decrease in VE-Cadherin expression and increase in phosphorylated CAV-1 (P-CAV-1). AGNHW treatment increased the expression of AQP4 on astrocyte membrane after LPS injection. AGNHW also inhibited the LPS-induced increases in the phosphorylation of 21 proteins, including protein kinase C-α (PKC-α) and mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1), in the cerebral tissue. Eleven AGNHW metabolites were detected in the blood. These metabolites might exert therapeutic effects by regulating PKC-α and MAPK1. AGNHW can ameliorate cerebrovascular edema caused by LPS. This effect is associated with the inhibition of VE-Cadherin reduction and CAV-1 phosphorylation, as well as the upregulation of AQP4 expression on the astrocyte membrane, following LPS injection.