Pure Binders Research Articles

Utilising Pareto efficiency and RSM to adjust binder content in clay stabilisation for Yttre Ringvägen, Malmö

In this paper, we present a new framework for improving soil strength using an advanced method of engineering statistics. The materials included clay till collected in Yttre Ringvägen, southern Sweden. Binders included quicklime, slag and ordinary Portland cement used as pure binders and blended mixtures. We first applied the Response Surface Methodology techniques aimed at binder blend optimisation: 1) Central Composite Design; 2) Box-Behnken Design; 3) Simplex Lattice Design. The Pareto charts were presented for modelling responses from tests with different binders and estimating their effects on soil strength. Finally, to examine the variables important for soil stabilisation, we also evaluated the effect of the amount of binder and the interaction between cement/lime/slag in different ratios: 30-50-20 %; 50-50-0 %; 100-0-0 % The paper highlights the major opportunities and challenges of engineering statistics as a cross-cutting research direction for the issues of civil engineering.

Investigation of the Rheological Properties of Asphalt Binders Modified with Nanomaterial

This study examined the effects of the Aerosil 150 addition on the rheological characteristics of bituminous binders at various temperatures. In the study, a frequency sweep test was applied to determine the rheological properties of pure binders and binders with 2%, 4% and 6% Aerosil 150 additives. Unaged binders were subjected to the frequency sweep test using a Bohlin DSR rheometer at test temperatures ranging from 40°C to 80°C (increasing by 10°C). The results showed that adding Aerosil 150 additive to the pure binder raised the binder's complex modulus (G*) values while decreasing the phase angle (δ) values. At 40 °C 0.1 Hz frequency, 2%, 4% and 6% Aerosil 150 doped binders gave G* values 1.52, 2.02 and 3 times higher than pure binder, respectively. The same ratio is 1.31, 1.54 and 1.99 times at 5 Hz frequency and 1.28, 1.47 and 1.82 times at 10 Hz frequency. At the same temperature, as the frequency value increases, the binders' complex modulus values approach each other. When the phase angle values at 40°C were examined, the 2%, 4%, and 6% Aerosil 150 modified binders, when compared to pure binder at 0.1 Hz frequency, yielded 2.75°C, 5.56°C, and 9.17°C lower phase angle values, respectively. This decrease is 3.19, 5.04 and 7.33 °C at 5 Hz frequency and 3.09, 4.84 and 6.76 °C at 10 Hz frequency. This shows that at various frequencies, the modified binder behaves more adaptably than the pure binder. The fact that the binder has a low δ value against a high G* value indicates that it will exhibit more flexible behavior. It was discovered as a result that Aeresil 150 modified binders performed better in terms of rheological qualities than pure binders.

Geotechnical Properties of Soil Stabilized with Blended Binders for Sustainable Road Base Applications

This study aimed at evaluating the effect of blended binders on the stabilization of clayey soils intended for use as road and pavement materials in selected regions of Sweden. The stabilization potential of blended binders containing five stabilizers (cement, bio fly ash, energy fly ash, slag and lime) was investigated using laboratory tests and statistical analysis. Soil samples were compacted using Swedish Standards on UCS. The specimens were stabilized with blended mixtures containing various ratios of five binders. The effects of changed ratio of binders on soil strength was analyzed using velocities of seismic P-waves penetrating the tested soil samples on the day 14 of the experiment. The difference in the soil surface response indicated variations in strength in the evaluated specimens. We tested combination of blended binders to improve the stabilization of clayey soil. The mix of slag/lime or slag/cement accelerated soil hardening process and gave durable soil product. We noted that pure lime (burnt or quenched) is best suited for the fine-grained soils containing clay minerals. Slag used in this study had a very finely ground structure and had hydraulic properties (hardens under water) without activation. Therefore, slag has a too slow curing process for it to be practical to use in real projects on stabilization of roads. The best performance on soil stabilization was demonstrated by blended binders consisted of lime/fly ash/cement which considerably improved the geotechnical properties and workability of soil and increased its strength. We conclude that bearing capacities of soil intended for road construction can be significantly improved by stabilization using mixed binders, compared to pure binders (cement).

Simplex Lattice Design and X-ray Diffraction for Analysis of Soil Structure: A Case of Cement-Stabilised Compacted Tills Reinforced with Steel Slag and Slaked Lime

Evaluating the structure of soil prior to building construction is valuable in a large variety of geotechnical and civil engineering applications. To built an effective framework for assessing the strength of the stabilised soil, the presented workflow includes a complex approach of simplex lattice design and X-ray diffraction for the analysis of soil structure. Different from the traditional in situ measurements, we propose a statistical framework for effective decision-making on binder combination to stabilise soil collected in three localities of Southern Sweden—Bromölla Municipality (Skåne County), Petersborg (Östergötland County) and Örebro (Örebro County). A practical solution is presented that includes the evaluation of strength properties of various types of soil using ordinary Portland cement (OPC), slaked lime and steel slag as pure agents and blended binders. The specimens were collected in Southern Sweden and included sandy silty tills and clay till (clay content 6–18%). The preprocessing included the mineralogical analysis of mineral composition and soil structure by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and a sieve. The soil samples were fabricated, compacted, rammed, stabilised by six binder blends and assessed for uniaxial compressive strength (UCS). The moisture condition value (MCV) and water content tests were done for compacted soil and showed variation in the MCV values for different binders. The study determined the effects from binder blends on the UCS gain in three types of soil, measured on days 7, 28 and 90. Positive effects were noted from the steel slag/lime blends on the UCS gain in sandy silty tills. A steel slag/slaked lime mixed binder performed better compared to the pure binders. The effectiveness of the simplex lattice design was demonstrated in a series of ternary diagrams showing soil strength evaluated by adding the stabilising agents in different proportions.

Impact of trace metals Zn, Cu, Cd and Ni on the reactivity of OPC and GGBS-based hydraulic binders at early age for sediment stabilization

The solidification/stabilization method was demonstrated to be an effective remediation technology for hazardous waste treatment. Three types of binding agents were tested in the present study in view of their potential use in solidification of contaminated sediments and soils – ordinary Portland cement (OPC), granulated ground blast furnace slag (GGBS) activated by OPC and a Supersulfated (SSC) binders. An investigation into the impact of trace metals Zn, Cu, Ni and Cd on the hydration of the binders was performed by adding them into pure binders’ systems. Hydration heat evolution of the binders was assessed through isothermal calorimetry and hydration products were analysed through XRD, NMR and XAFS analysis. Copper and zinc present the most perturbing effect on the early hydration delaying the main hydration peak occurrence while nickel and cadmium ions do not perturb or accelerate it. For example, the GGBS/OPC formulation without any metal addition has its MHP at 13.5 h, with the addition of 0.5%Zn the MHP appears 37 h later, with 0.5%Cu 11.5 h later, but with Ni and Cd 5 h earlier. The SSC formulation was shown to be the most sensitive on the trace metals (TM) addition. The electrokinetic and conductivity measurements of the binders using Zeta Potential apparatus showed a decrease in obtained values in the presence of Cu and Zn and an increase in the presence of Ni and Cd confirming the different behaviours of TM in the considered systems.

UV-Excited Fluorescence as a Basis for the In-Situ Identification of Natural Binders in Historical Painting: A Critical Study on Model Samples

The fluorescence emission by aged organic binders used in painting is a well-known phenomenon. Several literature studies were devoted to its investigation, both on pure binders and on their mixtures with some pigments. Nevertheless, a systematic study about the real possibility of exploiting such a phenomenon for the non-invasive identification of binders in ancient paintings is still lacking. In the present work, a prototype portable fluorimeter was used to analyze a significant number of model painting samples containing different binders (drying oils, egg yolk, milk, animal glue, and gum Arabic) mixed with various pigments having different hues. The model samples were naturally aged in a period ranging from fifteen to one year. The effects on the spectral pattern due to the different binders, the recipes used to prepare them, and the pigments mixed with them were examined. The fluorescence spectra were corrected for the absorption of the emitted radiation due to the pigments. Finally, the corrected spectra were treated by principal component analysis to determine if the possibility of distinguishing at least the most fluorescent and common binders, i.e., drying oils and egg, existed. It was shown that, even if the technique cannot be effectively applied in the case of mixed or superimposed binders, it allows to put forward at least a preliminary hypothesis when pure binders are used.

Effect of Sand Type and PVA Fiber Content on the Properties of Metakaolin Based Engineered Geopolymer Composites

This study investigates the mechanical and physical properties of engineered geopolymer composites (EGCs) consisting of metakaolin (MK) based geopolymer (GP) binder, microsilica sand (MS) or river sand (RS), and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber. Plain GP matrices and fiber-reinforced composites were studied. Aspects of the material composition evaluated here included binder composition, aggregate type, and fiber content. Compressive strength test results revealed that GP mortars presented greater compressive strength than pure GP binders. Moreover, the addition of PVA fibers produced an important increment in compressive strength while increases in fiber content generally enhanced compressive strength. MS composites tended to produce higher compressive strength than RS composites. While exhibiting low densities (i.e., 1.80–1.94 g/cm3), the composite materials evaluated exceeded the compressive strength of regular concrete (i.e., 30 MPa). Furthermore, the best performing composite presented a compressive strength of 57.5 MPa, thus falling in the category of high-strength concrete. The EGC-like tensile pseudo strain-hardening (PSH) behavior of MK-based GP composites was confirmed by a uniaxial tensile test with MS-composites exhibiting greater tensile strength and ductility compared with RS composites; yet, robust PSH behavior was not achieved mainly because of a lack of proper fiber dispersion. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed unreacted metakaolin particles in some areas within the geopolymer gel of both GP binders evaluated in this study, suggesting incomplete geopolymerization in the binder. Furthermore, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) microchemical analysis of a geopolymer gel encountered close agreement between the target composition of the GP binders produced and the actual chemical composition encountered in the specimens evaluated.

Behaviour of binder blends: experimental results and modelling from LVE properties of pure binder, RAP binder and rejuvenator

The first objective of this study is to highlight the effect of the rejuvenator on the linear viscoelastic (LVE) properties of various blends of a fresh 50/70 binder and a reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) binder, with a rejuvenator (a mixture of vegetal oils). A total of 17 binders (including pure fresh and RAP binders) produced as blends of two base binders and a rejuvenator in various proportions were tested. Dynamic shear rheometer tests were performed, and the experimental results were modelled using the 2S2P1D model. The second main objective was to present and analyse two different approaches for estimation of 2S2P1D parameters and temperature shift factors of binder blends, based on reduced experimental data (only data for the base constituents). Good correlation was found between the direct determination and the estimated results. However, a more accurate estimation was performed with the second approach.

Interactions between alkali-activated ground granulated blastfurnace slag and organic matter in soil stabilization/solidification

This paper presents novel findings regarding the use of alkali-activated slag for the development of road applications and, more particularly, how the interactions that occur between the binder and the organic matter originally present in the soil can strongly affect its reactivity in the process of stabilization and solidification. The study uses mechanical performances and macroscopic characterization, such as isothermal calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis of the pure binders as well as of the soil-binder mixes in order to characterize the hydration mechanisms. By analyzing the chemical composition of organic matter extracted with three different alkaline activators, it is shown that both humic and fulvic acids are strong complexing agents, not only of calcium and aluminum ions, as noted in the existing scientific literature, but also of highly soluble silicon. In this study, only sodium hydroxide activated slag was found to be a suitable alkali-activated binder for subbase layer development.

Rheological Evaluation of Asphalt Binder Modified with Nanoparticles of Titanium Dioxide

Premature cracks and permanent deformations are usual problems in Brazilian main road asphalt pavements. Researches intended to solve that problems have been developed with asphalt binder modified with polymers, fibre and recently nanoparticles. This article aims to study the incorporation of nanoparticles of titanium dioxide (TiO2) on binder 55/75-E in percentages 0%, 3%, 4%, 5% of binder mass. The modified and pure binders were evaluated in two stages: first stage binders were analysed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), second stage consisted in physical and rheological tests: penetration, softening point, rotational viscosity, performance grade (PG); these tests were performed before and after short-term ageing procedure (RTFOT), multiple stress creep and recovery (MSCR) and linear amplitude sweep (LAS). Results show that binders with TiO2 developed a high performance than the pure binder in high temperatures. This behaviour was verified through elevated stiffness and high softening point. TiO2 addition promoted non-recoverable compliant reduction, suggesting a boost in the resistance to permanent deformation. Modified binders, also, demonstrated a delay on ageing that can be testified by ageing index and reduction in loss of mass.

Study of migration and diffusion during the mixing process of asphalt mixtures with RAP

The mixing degree of virgin and aged asphalt binders is one of the main factors that can significantly affect the performance of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). On the other hand, an important factor that contributes to the mixing is diffusion, which dominantly determines the general performance of asphalt mixtures with RAP. In this study, twelve different lab-mixing conditions were deliberately adopted to investigate the impact on the diffusion between virgin and aged bitumen binders, including three mixing temperatures (110°C, 130°C, 150°C) and four mixing times (30 s, 60 s, 120 s, 240 s). Specially fabricated cubic aggregates were designed and deposited for collecting pure binders, so that virgin or aged binders can be tracked and the effect of chemical reagents be avoided. Based on the Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) tests, the performance and blending rate of binders under various conditions were clearly shown. The results show that blending temperature can play a more crucial role in diffusion than mixing duration, which means the higher temperature is capable of accelerating the inter-diffusion rate between virgin and aged bitumen binders, thus increasing the efficiency of recycling ulteriorly. The blending degree investigated in this study could not achieve the complete mixed state with the highest value being around 50%. Furthermore, the Asymmetric Gaussian Model is proposed to mathematically describe the change of blending rate with the mixing time.

Applicability of Low-Cost Binders for the Quantitative Elemental Analysis of Urinary Stones Using EDXRF Based on Fundamental Parameter Approach.

The pressed powder sample is a common method for elemental analysis using X-ray fluorescence analysis whereas suitable light hydrocarbon materials should be added to the sample as a binder. The present study demonstrates the applicability of using different commercial binders for elemental analysis of urinary stone samples. In order to confirm the obtained results, a comparison with pure chemical grade binders was presented. Different commercial and pure binders were tested for quantitative elemental analysis of urinary stones, namely, cellulose, starch, wax, and urea. Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) was used for elemental analysis. Differential thermal analysis was used to estimate the loss on ignition (LOI) in the urinary stone samples. The signal to background ratios (I/IB) of the different detected elements in the commercial and pure binders were calculated, compared, and studied at eight different photon energies starting from 2.5 up to 37keV. Standard-less quantitative analysis method based on the fundamental parameter approach was applied for elemental analysis of selected urinary stones. The commercial and low-cost binders could be an excellent alternative binder for urinary stone analysis using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence. The commercial binders could provide an advantage as pure chemical grade binders or even better especially at photon energy higher than 10keV. The best commercial binder candidate was found to be the wax. The quantitative analysis results using commercial and pure chemical grade binders give good agreement results, which indicate the applicability of commercial binders for quantitative elemental analysis of urinary stones in the form of pressed powder samples.

Alternative Design Options for Preparing Beta Gypsum-Based Gypsum Premix

Up to now, questions related to the preparation of pure sulphate binders, ie anhydrite mortar, alpha gypsum and beta gypsum, have been monitored at laboratory and pilot plant level within the framework of the work carried out at BUT. However, beta gypsum cannot be considered a high-grade sulfate binder. Therefore, the subject of this article is the use of beta gypsum to develop a gypsum premix that can be classified as a mixed sulfate binder universally applicable to the preparation of dry mortar mixtures. [1,2]

Multivariate Analysis of Combined Fourier Transform Near-Infrared Spectrometry (FT-NIR) and Raman Datasets for Improved Discrimination of Drying Oils.

This work explores the application of chemometric techniques to the analysis of lipidic paint binders (i.e., drying oils) by means of Raman and near-infrared spectroscopy. These binders have been widely used by artists throughout history, both individually and in mixtures. We prepared various model samples of the pure binders (linseed, poppy seed, and walnut oils) obtained from different manufacturers. These model samples were left to dry and then characterized by Raman and reflectance near-infrared spectroscopy. Multivariate analysis was performed by applying principal component analysis (PCA) on the first derivative of the corresponding Raman spectra (1800-750 cm(-1)), near-infrared spectra (6000-3900 cm(-1)), and their combination to test whether spectral differences could enable samples to be distinguished on the basis of their composition. The vibrational bands we found most useful to discriminate between the different products we studied are the fundamental ν(C=C) stretching and methylenic stretching and bending combination bands. The results of the multivariate analysis demonstrated the potential of chemometric approaches for characterizing and identifying drying oils, and also for gaining a deeper insight into the aging process. Comparison with high-performance liquid chromatography data was conducted to check the PCA results.

Discrimination of aged mixtures of lipidic paint binders by Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics

This work explores the application of chemometric techniques to Raman spectra to study aged lipidic paint binders. These binders, commonly known as drying oils, were widely used by artists throughout history both individually and in mixtures. We prepared various model samples of the pure binders (linseed, poppy‐seed and walnut oils and egg yolk) and of binary mixtures thereof. These model samples were left to age naturally for six years and further characterized by Raman spectroscopy. A comparative study of the Raman spectral features before and after ageing process was carried out. This showed changes mainly in the bands located at 1267, 1655 and 3011 cm–1, which correspond to vibrations in cis double bonds. Multivariate analysis was performed by applying principal component analysis and partial least‐squares discriminant analysis on the corresponding Raman spectra to test whether spectral differences allowed samples to be distinguished on the basis of their composition. The CH stretching region was found to be especially useful for discrimination between the different binders. Furthermore, good sensitivity and specificity were found in the discriminant analysis particularly for the identification of binders containing egg yolk. The results of these multivariate analyses demonstrated the potential use of both chemometric approaches in the field of Cultural Heritage for drying oil characterization and identification, and also for gaining a deeper insight into the ageing process. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Effect of Extraction and Recovery Procedure on the Determination of PmB Content and on the Properties of the Recovered Binder

ABSTRACT In Belgium, the commonly used test method for the determination of the binder content of a bituminous mixture is based on the extraction of the soluble bitumen with a centrifuge. This step is followed by a recovery of the solvent with a rotary evaporator when the binder is yet to be characterized. The procedures for pure binders are clearly described in the European standards, but this is not the case for polymer modified bitumens (PmBs). Consequently, a research project has been launched to evaluate, in the case of bituminous mixtures with PmB both the effect of extraction on the binder content as well as the effect of extraction and recovery on the properties of the recovered PmB. In this study, the use of several solvents and dissolution methods has been compared.

Identification of protein binders in works of art by high-performance liquid chromatography–diode array detector analysis of their tryptic digests

Proteins in works of art are generally determined by the relative amounts of amino acids. This method, however, implies a loss of information on the protein structure and its modifications. Consequently, we propose a method based on the analysis of trypsin digests using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) UV diode array detection (DAD) for painting binder studies. All reaction steps are done in the same vial; no extraction methods or sample transfer is needed, reducing the risk of sample losses. A collection of pure binders (collagen, ovalbumin, yolk and casein) as well as homemade and historical paint samples have been investigated with this method. Chromatograms of unknowns at 214 nm and 280 nm are compared with those of the reference samples as a fingerprint. There is a good agreement between many peptides, but others seem to have been lost or their retention time shifted due to small compositional changes because of ageing and degradation of the paint. The results are comparable with the results of other techniques used for binder identification on the same samples, with the additional advantage of differentiation between egg yolk and glair.

Characterization of Ballpoint Pen Inks by Thermal Desorption and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

The characterization of ink on paper is of importance for dating and comparing questioned ink entries in forensic document examination. Inks are commonly characterized by their colorant profile that is identified by well-established analytical methods. Numerous ink formulations show identical colorant profiles, though. In order to differentiate inks that are not distinguishable by colorant analysis, a method for the characterization of colorless ink ingredients, namely binders, solvents and additives is necessary. In this paper, we propose a technique for the analysis of colorless compounds in ballpoint inks using direct thermal desorption of the ink on paper followed by chemical analysis of the desorbed volatile compounds by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. As compared to liquid extraction and subsequent analysis of the extracts, the technique avoids possible contamination risks. Sensitivity is very high due to the enrichment of volatile components by thermal desorption. Even from old samples, the chromatograms obtained by the method enable the determination of binder polymers, solvents and additives. Pure binders as used by ink manufacturers were analyzed for unambiguous assignment of analytical results to specific polymers. To prove the practical applicability, we analyzed 121 ballpoint pens, not all having the same colorant profile, and grouped the pens into resin and solvent categories.

Study of rheological properties of pure and polymer-modified Brazilian asphalt binders

In recent years, many authors have suggested techniques to study asphalt binders and establish structure-property correlations for these materials. Several works have shown that rheological analysis provides reliable information about the stability, elasticity, thermal susceptibility, and also that rheological behavior depends on chemical composition and structure of pure and modified binders. The objective of this work was to study the effect of the asphalt binder chemical composition and modifier polymer type on the linear viscoelastic properties and to correlate these properties to the PMB's thermal susceptibility. A set of polymer-modified asphalt binders (PMB) was prepared using two Brazilian asphalts. Both pure binders and PMB were analyzed by classical and dynamic rotational rheology tests. The rheological analysis results were also compared to storage stability data and PMB's morphology. The fitting capability of the Christensen-Anderson and Christensen-Anderson-Marasteanu rheological models was analyzed for the two pure asphalt binders. Both models presented lack of fitness in the regions of lowest and highest frequencies. When using elastomeric modifiers, it was possible to state the existence and interrelation between the width of the phase angle master curve plateau and the PMB's thermal susceptibility and stability. This interrelation was supported by PMB's storage stability data and microscopy analysis.

Effect of Mineral Fillers on Fatigue Resistance and Fundamental Material Characteristics: Mechanistic Evaluation

Complex characteristics of fatigue behavior were evaluated on the basis of test results and their mechanical analyses. The dynamic shear rheometer was used to characterize fundamental linear viscoelastic properties of asphalt binders and mastics. Various dynamic mechanical tests using cylindrical sand–asphalt samples mixed with pure binders, mastics, or both were also performed to estimate viscoelastic characteristics and fatigue behavior. To assess the filler effect, two distinctly compositionally different asphalt binders, AAD-1 and AAM-1, and two fillers, limestone and hydrated lime, were selected. Test results were analyzed using viscoelastic theory, a fatigue prediction model based on continuum damage mechanics, and a rheological composite model. The role of fillers in fatigue resistance was quantified, and induced mechanisms due to filler addition were investigated. The effect of hydrated lime, which is highly binder specific, as a filler was further discussed by comparing test results from hydrated lime filler and test results from limestone filler.