Public Bus Transport Research Articles

Time and spatially resolved tracking of the air quality in local public transport

As an indoor environment, public transport is subject to special conditions with many passengers in a comparatively small space. Therefore, both an efficient control of the climatic parameters and a good air exchange are necessary to avoid transmission and spread of respiratory diseases. However, in such a dynamic system it is practically impossible to determine pathogenic substances with the necessary temporal and spatial resolution, but easy-to-measure parameters allow the air quality to be assessed in a passenger compartment. Carbon dioxide has already proven to be a useful indicator, especially in environments with a high occupancy of people. Airborne particulate matter can also be an important aspect for assessing the air quality in an indoor space. Consequently, the time courses of temperature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide and particulate matter (PM10) were tracked and evaluated in local public transport buses, trams and trains in the Brunswick/Hanover region. In all measurements, the climatic conditions were comfortable for the passengers. Carbon dioxide was strongly correlated with occupancy and has proven to be the most informative parameter. The PM10 concentration, however, often correlated with the dynamics of people when getting on and off, but not with the occupancy. Sensors, equipped with integrated GPS, were installed in the passenger cabins and were found to be useful for recording location-related effects such as stops. The results of this study show that the online recording of simple parameters is a valuable tool for assessing air quality as a function of time, location and number of people. When the occupancy is high, a low carbon dioxide level indicates good ventilation, which automatically reduces the risk of infection. It is therefore recommended to take more advantage of low-cost sensors as a control for air conditioning systems in passenger cabins and for evaluations of the dynamics in public transport.

Life cycle assessment study on the public transport bus fleet electrification in the context of sustainable urban development strategy

In this paper, the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method was applied to investigate the environmental impact of the electrification of the urban bus fleet. Public bus transport in large urban agglomerations is one of the main sources of pollution. To reduce the generation of pollution, electrification of the bus fleet is considered as one of the potential solutions. The authors developed three models of buses with different power units: diesel bus, diesel hybrid bus, and electric bus. The impacts of model buses were analysed at the stage of their production and operation in the city, as well as the impact of diesel fuel and electricity production. Furthermore, a case study was conducted based on the example of the Polish city of Krakow, demonstrating three possible scenarios for the electrification of the urban bus fleet. Moreover, an analysis of the environmental impact of the current and future Polish national energy production system until 2040 was carried out. Using the IMPACT 2002+ Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) method, the results were reported in four damage endpoint categories: human health, ecosystem quality, climate change, and resources. It was shown that increasing the share of electric buses in urban fleets can be highly beneficial in all four categories if the electricity used to power the electric buses is produced from enough low- and zero-emission energy sources. In addition, the level of environmental burden generated by the different phases of the life cycle of the bus was characterised. Overall, the advantages and possible problems of urban bus fleet electrification were highlighted, and recommendations for future sustainable development strategies were suggested. Thus, this study can be useful as an algorithm to support decision-making related to the electrification of city bus fleets.

Relationship of Demographic Characteristics, Age, Educational Qualification, Tenure in the Organization and Job Position of Employees with different dimensions of Market Orientation – A TSRTC study (Telangana State Road Transportation Corporation)

Purpose: Public transport provides one of the most important modes in fulfilling the travel needs of the society. More so in case of the developing and underdeveloped nations in the world. Bus public transport apart from rail provides very economical means to travel and hence are popular modes. This study focuses on the bus public transport and the two important employees within the organization who provide the services to the people i.e., the driver and the conductor. These two employees of the organization play a very vital role in satisfying customers and retaining their loyalty. Methodology: The study focuses on the importance of Market Orientation of these employees and how their market orientation is affected by different demographic factors. The study examines the relationship of age, educational qualification, organizational tenure and job position with different dimensions of market orientation of the employees. Findings: The lowest age group employees belong to compassionate appointment batch i.e., family member provided with job on death of employee while in service their education levels are higher than others and show more commitment towards organisation as they are a part of organisation from their child hood. The age groups (44-51, 52-59) may be classified into a disappointed group as expected benefits like salaries and retirement benefits are not being paid on time. It is also seen that the employees with different educational backgrounds do not show significant difference in intelligence dissemination, intelligence generation and responsiveness. Originality / Value: Bus transport system is an ideal for meeting the huge increasing demand for passenger transport services. Bus transport system makes the most optimum use of the available road space and fossil fuel by transporting maximum number of people per unit of road space. This is one of the first empirical studies that examined the relationship of demographic characteristics, age, education and tenure in the state road transportation corporation in Telangana state and India as well. Based on the empirical evidence, this study provides the practical and theoretical implications of these findings and will be useful to other public road transport corporations in India and other countries.

A surface sampling and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry method for the analysis of quaternary ammonium compounds collected from public transportation buses in New Jersey

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are a class of antimicrobial disinfectants whose use in cleaning products increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. Chemically, their low vapor pressure indicates a proclivity to persist on surfaces, and their presence suggests a level of protection against microorganisms. The widespread application of QACs in response to the SARS CoV-2 virus created a need to evaluate their longevity on surfaces, for both efficacy and possible health risks. There are however, no standardized analytical methods for QAC surface sampling and analysis, and no published studies quantifying their concentrations on mass transportation vehicles-a high occupancy, close-contact microenvironment documented to facilitate the spread the SARS CoV-2 virus. Here, we describe a robust liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method for the analysis of QACs and simultaneous development of a direct surface sampling and extraction protocol. We demonstrate the applicability of the method through the analysis of surface samples collected from in-service public transportation buses.The rapid, sensitive LC-MS method included 8 target QACs quantified on a Q-Exactive HF Hybrid Quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometer using an electrospray ionization source and Dionex UltiMate 3000 UHPLC system for analyte separation. QAC standard mixtures at concentrations between 0.1 ng mL−1 and 2000 ng mL−1 were analyzed, and chromatographic separation of all analytes was achieved in less than 10 min. All correlation coefficients were reported at r > 0.986, and LODs ranged from 0.007 to 2.103 ng mL−1 for all compounds, confirming the method's sensitivity. A previously reported surface sampling and extraction protocol was modified to further simplify the procedure and expand the number of target compounds. The new sampling protocol was optimized from 10 commercially available wipes and 4 solvent types by quantifying recovery from the surface. Band-Aid brand small gauze pads saturated with isopropanol had the highest recovery efficiencies, ranging from 61.5 to 102.9% across all analytes. To test the real-world applicability, wipe samples were collected from 4 in-circulation New Jersey Transit buses on 5 separate days over the course of a month to assess the occurrence and longevity of QACs on sanitized mass transportation vehicles. Concentrations of QACs were detected on every wipe sample taken, and at all sampled time points, confirming their persistence on hard surfaces. QACs have the potential to form polymers, and detection of the polymer might serve as a secondary indication of their effectiveness on surfaces. None of the polymers detected however, were unique to QACs from this study. The polymers detected were already present in the wipe and used as an internal standard to demonstrate the efficacy of extraction and analysis of polymeric QACs.

Understanding transit user satisfaction with an integrated bus system

Understanding the factors and drivers of user satisfaction with public transportation (PT) systems has been a subject of research for decades, as it provides insight into influencing ridership increases. This research addresses user satisfaction using SEM-MIMIC models to analyze three PT bus subsystems in the same city (Bogotá Colombia): A Bus Rapid Transit, a formalized bus subsystem, and a semi-formalized one that operates simultaneously. After developing three independent models, we found the same three latent variables (LVs), namely subsystems “condition”, “service”, and “safety/security”, in each one. However, the strength and significance of the direct and indirect effects among the three LVs vary from one subsystem to another. In general, satisfaction is initially based on a person’s perception of the subsystem’s condition and ends with his/her perception of the service, with safety and service being the mediating variables to explain satisfaction. Unlike previous studies, we were able to identify relationships among these three independent variables for each subsystem, allowing us to assess the direct and indirect effects on overall subsystem satisfaction. This research provides decision-makers with a broader understanding of how infrastructure, vehicles, operational attributes, and regulation processes influence user satisfaction through perceptions and how they can help improve the PT service for its users.

Diesel-fueled public transport vehicles and air pollution in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Effects of vehicle size, age and kilometers travelled

Emissions from diesel-fueled vehicles constitute a serious problem in developing countries. They are composed of substances that are harmful to human health and the environment such as carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM). This article argues that emissions from diesel-fueled public transport vehicles in Addis Ababa are substantial due to the old age of most of the vehicles (generally over 20 years). The article investigates the emissions generated by different categories of public transport vehicles – minibuses, mid-sized buses, and large buses -and explores the effects of vehicle size, age, and kilometers travelled on emission levels. Analysis of data for 358 diesel-fueled vehicles collected randomly at different locations in the city revealed that 243 (67.9%) of them had emission levels beyond the standard threshold with their smoke opacity being greater than or equal to 41%. Of these, 45 (18.52%) registered 100% smoke opacity. This study shows that minibuses are the dominant air pollutant in the city compared to mid-sized buses and large buses with an average smoke opacity of 86.36%, which is above the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) standard. Only 19.92% of minibuses meet the smoke opacity standard. In terms of passenger carrying capacity, one large bus may be equivalent to eight minibuses. Shifting from the use of minibuses to large buses for public transport therefore represents a huge savings in emission and significant reduction in traffic congestion. The findings of this study lend credence to the current policy of the Government of Ethiopia to impose huge taxes on imported second-hand minibuses and encourage the importation of brand-new large buses. Moreover, the findings suggest that the government should enact polices and regulations that limit the age of public transport vehicles from mechanical safety and emissions control perspectives.

Smokeless tobacco abuse among public transport bus employees in Mumbai, India.

Smokeless tobacco abuse among public transport bus employees in Mumbai, India.

PASSENGERS’ PERCEPTIONS ON SECURITY AND SAFETY IN PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION IN ETHIOPIA: A CASE STUDY OF ADDIS ABABA

Due to its low fares, public bus transportation as a means of urban road mobility is a popular choice, particularly among city inhabitants. However, owing to its high level of crowdedness, it poses a greater risk of security and safety, particularly during peak hours. Moreover, passengers have continued to voice their dissatisfaction about the services offered, as well as the criminality that occurs in the station and on the bus. The problem is exacerbated in developing countries due to increased travel demand and a lack of appropriate and integrated solutions. Consequently, the purpose of this study is to evaluate commuters' perceptions of their concerns about using public bus transportation in the city, with an emphasis on security and safety in bus operations. A questionnaire survey was used to obtain data from 500 users in the city for the study. Using the SPSS software, the data was analyzed. To find out what they think, a descriptive analysis was used. Overcrowding of buses, personal insecurity, and infrequent bus service are the three biggest concerns in using public bus transportation in the city, according to the results. Furthermore, most of the respondents were concerned about crime; specifically, pickpockets, inappropriate touching, and disrespectful language of drivers and conductors are the three top types of crime that concern passengers who use public bus transportation in the city. Additionally, most people felt more insecure while riding the bus and getting on/off the bus, particularly in the evening and between 9:00 and 12:00 p.m. local time. Thus, it is advised that the Addis Ababa City Transport Authority, the Public Bus Transport Enterprise, and other interested parties place a strong emphasis on security and safety when providing public transportation in the city. Furthermore, it is critical to perform regular victim surveys of passengers (as well as operators) to establish whether they have been criminally victimized on the bus system and by what type of crime. Equally important, regularly assess the likely usefulness of new crime prevention measures for reducing bus-related offenses and prepare an annual bus crime reduction strategy.

User Perception towards Ride hail Service: A case of Nagpur city, India

In recent times, there is an increase in the utilization of the ride-hail service (viz., mobile application-based shared service) by the younger generation due to tremendous changes in technology, extensive usage of smartphones, and perceived convenience during travelling. For evaluating ride-hail service further, it is necessary to understand the user perception towards the ride-hail service and public transportation system (viz., bus in this case) to efficiently plan the public transportation services. Hence, the present study analyzes user perception while making trips, using ride-hail service and public transport buses. A long stretch of 3.8 km has been selected in the Nagpur city for the study and the stretch attracts a good number of trips by ride-hailing and public transportation. To perform the analysis, a survey has been conducted in the stretch which includes an online survey (viz., based on the Google form) and an offline survey (viz., at selected bus stops on the route between university campus and shopping complex). A binary logit model has been developed to understand the user perception towards ride-hail service and to identify the significant contributing factors towards the preference of the ride-hail service over the public transport bus. From the model results, it has been noted that age, accessibility, waiting time, travel time, income, and travel cost of the trip are the most significant contributing factors that affect user decision for availing the ride-hail service. It has been concluded from the study that the inferences obtained would be useful in the direction of developing warrants for transport planners and policymakers to improve the service quality of public transport buses (viz., frequency and routes) in cities especially in the Indian context.

Public Bus Transportation System Environmental Impact Projections Regarding Different Policy Scenarios—A LCA Study

Urban activities, such as transportation, are responsible for a large portion of energy-related CO2 emissions. As the need for sustainable urban development increases, decision-makers embrace Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) as a reliable tool capable of generating scientifically based information on environmental impacts. However, there is still a lack of an analysis standard regarding the particularities of urban systems. Therefore, this research aims to define current and future environmental profiles, considering a case study of the public transport system in Porto Alegre, considering specificities of the urban context and different public policy scenarios through LCA. These results show that, although the transportation system management relies on the municipalities, the higher significance of environmental impacts depend on a national policy for using biodiesel in the diesel sold, which could lead to an increase of, for example, up to 9.4% of CO2 emissions from 2017 (baseline) to 2030. Finally, it is perceivable that to conduct a LCA to support decision-making in public urban services, a detailed approach is needed considering that technological variables interact with the territorial context and policy changes.

An assisting model for the visually challenged to detect bus door accurately

Visually impaired individuals are increasing and as per global statistics, around 39 million are blind, and 246 million are affected by low vision. Even in India, as per the recent reviews, over 5 million visually challenged people are present. Authors performed a survey of some critical problems the visually challenged people faced in India from the centre for visually challenged (CVC) School established by UVSM Hospitals. Among the major problems identified through survey, most of these persons prefer carrying out their tasks independently, and depend on public transport buses for migration. However, critical sub-problems being faced include; bus door identification and identifying the bus route number accurately. This article aims to provide solutions in helping visually challenged individuals to identify exact bus that drives them to their destination, its door, bus number, and the path for boarding bus. A video sequence of current scenario would be sent to mobile, in which the actual processing of image is carried out. After the video sequence processing, generated output is a voice message that specifies the bus's location, door, and exact information of the bus number along the road path directly to the user using a wireless device aiming foa a low-cost solution.

Impact of Vehicle Fleet Modernization on the Traffic-Originated Air Pollution in an Urban Area—A Case Study

The main subject of this paper is an analysis of the influence of changes in the air pollution caused by road traffic, due to its modernization, on the air quality in Warsaw conurbation, Poland. Using the Calpuff model, simulations of the yearly averaged concentrations of NOx, CO, PM10, and PM2.5 were performed, together with an assessment of the population exposure to individual pollutions. Source apportionment analysis indicates that traffic is the main source of NOx and CO concentrations in the city atmosphere. Utilizing the Euro norms emission standards, a scenario of vehicle emission abatement is formulated based on the assumed general vehicle fleet modernization and transition to Euro 6 emission standards. Computer simulations show a reduction in NOx concentrations attributed to emission mitigation of passenger cars, trucks and vans, and public transport buses, respectively. On the other hand, improving air quality in terms of CO concentrations depends almost exclusively on gasoline vehicle modernization. The implementation of the considered scenario causes an adequate reduction in the population exposure and related health effects. In particular, implementation of the scenario discussed results in a 47% reduction (compared with the baseline value) in the attributable yearly deaths related to NOx pollution. In spite of a substantial contribution of vehicle traffic to the overall PM pollution, modernization of the fuel combustion causes only minor final effects because the dominant share of PM pollution in Warsaw originates from the municipal sector and the transboundary inflow.

Models of Delivery of Sustainable Public Transportation Services in Metropolitan Areas–Comparison of Conventional, Battery Powered and Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Drives

The development of public transport systems is related to the implementation of modern and low-carbon vehicles. Over the last several years, there has been a clear progress in this field. The number of electric buses has increased, and the first solutions in the area of hydrogen fuel cells have been implemented. Unfortunately, the implementation of these technologies is connected with significant financial expenditure. The goal of the article is the analysis of effectiveness of financial investment, consisting in the purchase of 30 new public transport buses (together with the necessary infrastructure–charging stations). The analysis has been performed using the NPV method for the period of 10 years. Discount rate was determined on 4%, as recommended by the European Commission for this type of project. It is based on the case study of the investment project carried out by Metropolis GZM in Poland. The article determines and compares the efficiency ratios for three investment options-purchase of diesel-powered, battery-powered, and hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicles. The results of the analysis indicate that the currently high costs of vehicle purchase and charging infrastructure are a significant barrier for the implementation of battery-powered and hydrogen fuel-cell buses. In order to meet the transport policy goals related to the exchange of traditional bus stock to more eco-friendly vehicles, it is necessary to involve public funds for the purpose of financing the investment activities.

Development of Comfort and Safety Performance of Passenger Seats in Large City Buses

A bus seat needs to be designed ergonomically for better seating comfort. The present study is intended to develop a cost-effective ergonomic bus seat design based on seat comfort and safety demands. As part of the proposed seat design procedure, seating comfort analysis, identifying preferred design features, and developing a seat design are included. An analysis of the bus seat back and seat pan profiles was conducted. Based on the results of the comfort analysis, the authors identified the preferred design features of bus seats during the design identification process. An improved bus seat prototype was developed based on selected design features in the design development stage. Seating comfort analyses were used to compare the achieved seat with the reference seat. The seat design developed in the present study may be applicable for various types of bus public transport.

Determining the fuel consumption of a public city bus in urban traffic

The fuel consumption of a public transport bus depends on many factors. Various speeds, acceleration and deceleration modes, stopping times at bus stops and congestion, as well as the load depending on the number of transported passengers have a significant impact on the fuel consumption of the city bus. It is difficult to investigate the influence of these factors on fuel consumption using simple equations to determine the energy efficiency of vehicles. A very useful method in this case is the VSP (Vehicle Specific Power) method. The fuel consumption model based on this method uses a number of parameters. Taking into account the measurement data obtained from the actual mileage of city buses, the relevant parameters of the model were determined. The verified model was used in the process of computer simulation aimed at determining the fuel consumption of the bus in urban traffic. Particular attention was paid to the study of the impact of traffic during rush hours and congestion on fuel consumption. The impact and significance of the selected parameters on the fuel consumption of the city bus were also assessed using computer simulations.

A Hybrid Machine Learning and Optimization Model to Minimize the Total Cost of BRT Brake Components

Public transport is amongst critical infrastructures in modern cities, especially megacities, home to millions of people. The reliability of these systems is highly crucial for both citizens and service providers. If service providers overlook system reliability, a considerable amount of expenses will be wasted. Several factors such as vehicle failure, accident, lack of budget weather factors, and traffic congestion cause unreliability, among which vehicle failure plays a prominent role. The brake system is the most vulnerable and vital component of a public transportation bus. Brake reliability depends on driver’s expertise, component quality, passenger loading, line situation, etc. Driver’s expertise and components’ quality are the most important factors for brake system reliability. This study aims to implement a hybrid machine learning and optimization model to minimize the total investment and reliability-related costs in a bus rapid transit (BRT) system. A regression analysis method is proposed to capture the main attributes of a joint brake system, including the level of education, training, and drivers’ experience. The failure rate is modeled as a linear function of ETE and the quality of brake system subcomponents using a Lasso regression model. MILP optimization is then provided for optimizing the total expected costs for a bus rapid transit (BRT) system. Furthermore, a practical case is studied to investigate whether this optimization can reduce costs. The results confirm the efficiency of the hybrid optimization approach.

A GRASP Approach for Solving Large-Scale Electric Bus Scheduling Problems

Electrifying public bus transportation is a critical step in reaching net-zero goals. In this paper, the focus is on the problem of optimal scheduling of an electric bus (EB) fleet to cover a public transport timetable. The problem is modelled using a mixed integer program (MIP) in which the charging time of an EB is pertinent to the battery’s state-of-charge level. To be able to solve large problem instances corresponding to real-world applications of the model, a metaheuristic approach is investigated. To be more precise, a greedy randomized adaptive search procedure (GRASP) algorithm is developed and its performance is evaluated against optimal solutions acquired using the MIP. The GRASP algorithm is used for case studies on several public transport systems having various properties and sizes. The analysis focuses on the relation between EB ranges (battery capacity) and required charging rates (in kW) on the size of the fleet needed to cover a public transport timetable. The results of the conducted computational experiments indicate that an increase in infrastructure investment through high speed chargers can significantly decrease the size of the necessary fleets. The results also show that high speed chargers have a more significant impact than an increase in battery sizes of the EBs.

Improving the UX for Users of Automated Shuttle Buses in Public Transport: Investigating Aspects of Exterior Communication and Interior Design

As a precursor to future public transportation, automated shuttle buses can already be experienced in some test regions, but the general public still has reservations and may not yet be ready for this change. For example, the fact that such vehicles might operate independently (without a human driver) creates a barrier of uncertainty and mistrust among people. In this work, we aim to identify and classify the prevailing reservations and propose solutions. We followed the User Centered Design (UCD) process to design concepts that are specifically tailored to the needs of future public transport users. After related work analysis, on-site research, and pre-studies, two main studies were conducted specifically to address communication in the exterior (n = 24) and interior/service design (n = 21). For both studies, we applied a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative and qualitative measures. Our results indicate that, in general, existing ways of communication in the exterior are insufficient to meet future needs. The two visualization concepts for external communication developed in this work were rated (significantly) better in most dimensions of the User Experience Questionnaire (UEQ), when compared to the baseline condition with no additional visualization. Furthermore, preferences among the study participants towards simple, highly visible, and well-known lighting concepts could be observed. As for the interior, the results show that participants rated attractiveness highly for the two design concepts (closer, further in the future) as compared to current, state-of-the-art solutions (automated buses currently in operation). For the “near future” concept, the pragmatic quality dominated, while in the other (the “far future”) concept the hedonic quality was in the foreground. From the results, design recommendations in different categories were derived, which reflect the general openness of the public towards new technologies and interior approaches, but also point out the importance for privacy and designated personal spaces inside an (automated) shuttle bus. Some of the results do not strictly apply to automated shuttle buses, and can serve as valuable suggestions for improving conventional shuttle buses.

The impact of ownership and contractual practice on the technical efficiency level of the public transport operators: An international comparison

We aim to assess the impact of ownership and contractual practices on technical efficiency in the public bus transport sector in the world. The sample is decomposed from eight Tunisian firms and thirty firms from France, Spain, Belgium, and so on for the period of [2009–2016]. The methods used for this purpose is the two-stage DEA in which we used three techniques in the second stage namely the Tobit and Truncated regressions and Bootstrap technique and the SFA via the Batesse and Coelli (1995) and True Fixed Effect techniques. The main results show that the TFE model has the greatest mean of efficiency scores with a value equal to 0.88, while the CRS version of the DEA approach has the lowest score with a value equal to 0.27. Regarding the second stage, there is a significant impact of the ownership on the technical efficiency estimates, the public mode affect negatively the efficiency with a value equal to0.24 (Truncated regression), an interpretation is similar to the cost-plus contract. Also, according to the statistical tests, we find a significant difference between the public and private firms as well as the cost-plus and fixed-price contract in terms of technical efficiency.

Convergence or Divergence among Business Models of Public Bus Transport Authorities across the Globe: A Fuzzy Approach

Building on the debate about global convergence or divergence of practices, this study aims to query the viability of a new strategic action tool specifically geared to the interests of public bus transportation authorities (PBTA) around the globe and explore the degree of homogeneity in their responses as well as the possible drivers of them. To answer its research question, the study first offers a generic business model design for a PBTA, which integrates an extended version of the business model canvas with external environmental factors in order to enhance its sustainability. Subsequently, the importance attributions of international transportation experts to different model components are evaluated by using the Spherical Fuzzy AHP method. The model is developed in three hierarchical layers and evaluated by experts from four continents: America, Asia, Australia, and Europe. The results indicate that the expert opinions tend to converge more on the internal components of the model and diverge on the external components, especially regarding economic and technological factors. A strategic response action set is also designed to facilitate the adoption of the model by PBTA. The study not only extends the research on the strategic management of the public bus transportation domain but also contributes to the convergence and divergence debate by offering a reconciliatory duality perspective.