Psychological Defense Research Articles

ПСИХОЛОГІЧНІ ДЕТЕРМІНАНТИ ПОВЕДІНКОВИХ ЗМІН У ДІТЕЙ УНАСЛІДОК ТРАВМАТИЧНОГО СТРЕСУ ВІЙНИ В УКРАЇНІ

The article is devoted to the peculiarities of psychological traumatization of children of different age groups as a result of military aggression in Ukraine. A special category that suffers psychotrauma is children, whose stress can be aggravated by the behavior of adults who feel fear, anxiety and helplessness in the realities of war. The author draws attention to the fact that parents can become a source of transmission of psychotrauma to their unborn children due to imperceptible but hereditary shifts in the genome and under the influence of constant anxiety caused by the experience of war. In this way, suffering can be passed down through the generations. Emotional response to military events in the east of the country can be traumatic stress for children and adults. The author identified and described five main types of traumatic events, which are especially often responsible for mental and physical suffering in the future: emotional neglect, emotional and physical violence, sexual aggression and sexual violence. The patterns of early psychological traumatization, negative changes in behavior due to a break in the relationship with a close adult are analyzed. The article highlights the peculiarities of the behavioral manifestations of children who have experienced a traumatic experience, taking into account their age, namely preschool children, children of primary school age and teenagers. The main types of immediate or delayed reactions demonstrated by children as a result of experiencing a traumatic situation are considered: expressive reactions, controlling reactions, shock reactions. Particular attention is paid to psychological defense mechanisms, with the help of which the child tries to cope with the traumatic situation. The results obtained by the author prove the need for further study of resources for overcoming the stress of war in children and adolescents, formation of their stress resistance at different levels: individual, social, cultural. Key words: children and adolescents, war, stress, psychological trauma, traumatic events, early psychological traumatization, psychological defense mechanisms.

Fear of the Monsters in H.P. Lovecraft’s Short Stories “Whisperer in the Darkness” (1930) & “At the Mountain of Madness” (1931): Freudian Psychology of the Uncanny

An encounter with ominous objects or situations that causes one to feel uneasy, frightening, or afraid is known as an uncanny experience. It involves both feelings and situations that make someone uneasy. This article focused on the uncanny feelings in Lovecraft's two well-known short stories, "At the Mountain of Madness" (1930) and "Whisperer in the Darkness" (1931). By employing Sigmund Freud's psychological notion of "the uncanny", the study revealed that the uncanny attracts to readers in a variety of ways. They are simple overriding ideas that have been imprinted in the character's long-suppressed memories and are reinforced by the monstrosity's appearance. It focuses on both the monster's incredible physical characteristics and the characters' insanity or fear as a result of their unconsciousness. Their reality is broken, and the characters are unaware of the condition of the item as a result, supporting Freud's theories on repressed memories in the unconscious that emerge as a psychological defense mechanism.

Changes in the psychological defense mechanism and clinical features of patients with OCD – A four-year follow-up study

ObjectiveThe present study aims to (1) follow up with 4-year changes in the efficacy outcome, defense style questionnaire (DSQ) score, and clinical features of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and (2) analyze the relationship between different levels of efficacy and changes in the patients' psychological defense mechanisms. MethodsThe following data collection and 4-year follow-up were completed for 153 patients with OCD: (1) the treatment process, efficacy outcome, course of disease, and clinical features of OCD were collected using a self-made general information questionnaire and (2) the control method was used to analyze the changes in clinical symptoms (Yale–Brown obsessive compulsive scale [YBOCS], Hamilton anxiety score [HAMA], and Hamilton depression scale [HAMD]) in patients with OCD. Moreover, the changes in the psychological defense mechanism (measured by DSQ) and the relation between the prognosis and DSQ score were investigated. Results(1) The HAMA score (8.7 ± 4.8 points), HAMD score (12.0 ± 6.6 points) and YBOCS score (16.4 ± 8.4 points) were significantly lower during the follow-up than at the time of enrollment (p < 0.01). In the two DSQ evaluations, there were no significant differences in the factors, with the exception of a significant decrease in the use of “reaction formation” (t = 2.533, p = 0.015). The changes of mature defense factors in the significant efficacy group significantly increased (p < 0.01). Which was mainly manifested in the significant increase in the score of “sublimation” item, and the difference was extremely significant (t = −3.093, p = 0.006). ConclusionAn abnormal psychological defense mechanism plays an important role in OCD, and the use of a mature defense mechanism is significantly related to the treatment efficacy.

Psychogenic overeating: problems of classification, diagnosis, approaches to psychotherapy (literature review)

In the article, we analyze the diagnosis of psychogenic overeating (ICD-10), consider the problem of its diagnostic criteria, similarities and differences with the diagnosis of binge-eating disorder (DSM-V), which complicate the work of researchers. We are looking at the need to differentiate the different types of binge eating disorder. The role of psychogenic overeating is noted as a pathogenetic factor that triggers the process of gaining excess weight. We describe in detail the biological (gender and hereditary predisposition), psychological (individual psychological personality traits, adaptive and compensatory resources) and sociocultural (style of family education, social ideas about the reference body image, features of communicative behavior, etc.) groups of factors involved in the formation of psychogenic overeating. The article emphasizes the role of psychological triggers of the disease associated with the emotional-volitional sphere, the specificity of reactions to stressful influences, psychological defenses and perception of the image of one’s body. The article also raises the problem of the lack of adapted and standardized psychodiagnostic tools aimed at studying psychogenic overeating, which complicates the formulation of an accurate diagnosis and the choice of methods of its treatment. The article also discusses such therapeutic approaches to the treatment of the described nosology, such as psychoanalysis, positive psychotherapy, gestalt therapy, transactional analysis, body-oriented therapy. Particular attention is paid to the cognitive-behavioral approach, which has shown high efficiency when working with patients with eating disorders. It is noted, that it is promising to develop algorithms for diagnostics and therapy of the described nosology, the feasibility of identifying individual targets of psychotherapeutic interventions to create personalized complex programs that increase the effectiveness of therapy in relation to immediate and long-term results.

Are We Sure We Fully Understand What an Infodemic Is? A Global Perspective on Infodemiological Problems.

Infodemic is defined as an information epidemic that can lead to engaging in dangerous behavior. Although the most striking manifestations of the latter occurred on social media, some studies show that dismisinformation is significantly influenced by numerous additional factors, both web-based and offline. These include social context, age, education, personal knowledge and beliefs, mood, psychological defense mechanisms, media resonance, and how news and information are presented to the public. Moreover, various incorrect scientific practices related to disclosure, publication, and training can also fuel such a phenomenon. Therefore, in this opinion article, we seek to provide a comprehensive overview of the issues that need to be addressed to bridge the gap between science and the public and build resilience to the infodemic. In particular, we stress that the infodemic cannot be curbed by simply disproving every single false or misleading information since the belief system and the cultural or educational background are chief factors regarding the success of fake news. For this reason, we believe that the process of forming a critical sense should begin with children in schools (ie, when the mind is more receptive to new ways of learning). Furthermore, we also believe that themes such as scientific method and evidence should be at the heart of the university education of a future scientist. Indeed, both the public and scientists must be educated on the concepts of evidence and validity of sources, as well as learning how to dialogue appropriately with each other. Finally, we believe that the scientific publishing process could be greatly improved by paying reviewers for their work and by ceasing to pursue academic success at all costs.

STIGMA AND SELF-STIGMA IN ADOLESCENTS WITH EPILEPSY PSYCHO-SEოANTIC APPROACH

Over 50 million people worldwide have epilepsy and 80% of them live in develop- ing countries. [7]. According to the international statistics, although the complete seizure control is&nbsp; achieved in considerable part of the patients, the majority of them are suffering the enormous influ- ence of social stigma and self –stigmatization [1]. Level of stigma awareness in patients with epilepsy&nbsp; is relatively high. It turns out that, 50% of them consider themselves stigmatized, while 15% has&nbsp; strong feeling of being an object of stigmatization. Furthermore, young people face stigma more often&nbsp; than the old ones. [5]. Considering psychological issues of adolescence, stigma-related problems of&nbsp; chronic disease should be of biggest importance for this age group among population with epilepsy.&nbsp; Problems of stigmatization in adolescents with epilepsy are less explored nowadays though. Researches about adolescents with epilepsy involve youngsters between the ages 11-21. It&nbsp; should be noted, that researches are mostly based on data obtained from questionnaires and scales&nbsp; [8], [6], [4], [3]. One of the limitations associated with the study of stigma is, that it is difficult to&nbsp; narrow it down to specific variables. Because of that, most of the studies about stigma are cor- relative and quantitative. Although recently in a scientific study of the stigmatization of people&nbsp; with epilepsy, qualitative, phenomenological approaches have become more common 11]. On the&nbsp; one hand, the reason is that quantitative researches do not provide enough data about the subject,&nbsp; because individuals might not be conscious of some of the components of self-stigmatization and&nbsp; these components may unconsciously affect their important attitudes. On the other hand, qualitative&nbsp; approaches are far more relevant for studying phenomena, such as stigma and stigma perception.&nbsp; Psycho-social aspects of epilepsy has not been studied on Georgian population until recently, there- fore the number of researches is few. The most part of the studies involve only adult patients and&nbsp; comprises general information about the quality of their life and public awareness [13]. &nbsp;Stigma, either in a form of social discrimination or any other kind of action, expressed in&nbsp; behavior towards the group of people with epilepsy is obvious, observable, exteriorized and con- scious. It’s far more difficult to study the phenomena of stigma perception and self-stigmatization.&nbsp; The patient’s values and attitudes to self-perception and self-stigmatization are not obvious, observ- able and very often are unconscious. It should be noticed that less conscious attitudes and beliefs&nbsp; are very hard to reveal and assess because of psychological defense mechanisms (denial, regression,&nbsp; rationalization etc.) affecting such types of phenomenon. Therefore attitudes and values of patients&nbsp; with chronic disease, related to self-perception and self-stigmatization are hard to reveal and require specific approach. The best way to accomplish this is to use a procedure that would allow phenome- nological analysis of the issues of self-perception, self-stigmatization and help to unveil true values and believes of patients with epilepsy, while avoiding the defense mechanisms mentioned above.

The Social Change Represented in the Psychology of Women Characters Portrayed by S. Ramakrishnan

Tamil society is considered to be one of the oldest societies. Various problems like caste and economic inequalities along with gender differences exist in this society. Among these, gender inequality serves as a subject of debate till date. In society, women are not treated equally. In areas such as education, employment and marriage, women are treated poorly as compared to men. This inequality appears in different manners at different stages in time. Contemporary literature is written to show antagonism to this inequality. Particularly, short stories play a vital role in delineating these differences. Short story writer S. Ramakrishnan has given centre stage to the day-to-day problems faced by women in his short stories. The female characters portrayed in his stories struggle to establish their equality in spite of the troubles life throws at them. From his collection of short stories named Avalathu Veedu, two stories Avalathu Veedu and Embaavai are taken as primary sources for this research article. This article analyses the psychology of two female characters, Agalya and Nanmathi, who represent the main characters of the selected short stories. The social change represented from their psychological characteristics is also discussed. The principles of psychological defence mechanism is used to analyse the characteristics of these female characters.

Исследование механизмов психологической защиты сотрудников органов внутренних дел при возникновении профессиональных трудностей

The article presents a theoretical analysis of the problem of mechanisms of psychological protection of employees of internal affairs bodies in the event of professional difficulties. The analytical work made it possible to identify the necessary theoretical and methodological foundations for studying the designated problem. The problem of psychological features of overcoming professional difficulties by employees of the Department of Internal Affairs is not new to psychological science, throughout the existence of the system of moral and psychological support, theoretical and practical developments are actively conducted. There are also developments to study the mechanisms of psychological protection of police officers in various situations of operational and official activity. However, this issue remains relevant and requires the development of fundamentally new solutions, taking into account modern challenges and realities in which police officers solve assigned professional tasks. The author schematically presented the dynamics and algorithm of the emergence and flow of psychological defense mechanisms. It is revealed that the investigators of the territorial divisions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia in the Moscow region, the following mechanisms of psychological protection prevail in their professional activities: "compensation", "rationalization", "substitution", "displacement" The results of experimental work are presented, which allowed determining further prospects for studying the mechanisms of psychological protection in the professional activities of employees of internal affairs bodies and the development of the necessary psychological potential of the individual, contributing to overcoming professional difficulties in young specialists of the Department of Internal Affairs.

آليات الدفاع النفسي وعالقتها بأعراض اضطراب االكتئاب لدى طالبات جامعة اليرموك في األردن

The study aimed to identify the level of each psychological defense mechanism, and depression disorder symptoms among female students of Yarmouk University in Jordan, along with identifying the relationship between them. To achieve the objectives of the study, the researcher used DSQ-28 psychological defense mechanism scale and Beck's list of depression. The sample of the study consisted of (1392) female students from Yarmouk University in Jordan, who were chosen by the available randomized method. The results of the study showed that the level of each of the mechanisms of psychological defense, and depression disorder symptoms among Yarmouk University female students was moderate. The results of the study also showed an inverse correlative relationship between mature defense mechanisms and depression symptoms, while a significant correlation was found between neurotic and immature defense mechanisms, and depression among Yarmouk University female students.

Linguistic and Psychometric Validation of the Ukrainian Translation of the Inventory of Personality Organization-Revised (IPO-R-UKR)

The cultural adaptation of the psychodiagnostic questionnaire involves the implementation of a “double-blind” translation with subsequent linguistic validation considering both linguistic differences and the symbolism of the authors’ statements. Then, based on the survey data of respondents, various psychometric indicators of the questionnaire are checked. The development of Ukrainian-language questionnaires in the psychodynamic paradigm is crucial for creating an appropriate scientific evidence base of therapeutic methods and for psychotherapeutic practice to equip specialists with reliable diagnostic tools. The research objective is to carry out a professional translation of The Inventory of Personality Organization-Revised (IPO-R) into Ukrainian, followed by checking for linguistic validity and psychometric properties. The questionnaire showed high psychometric performance in the long (IPO; Lenzenweger et al., 2001) and short (IPO-R; Smits et al., 2009) versions and foreign language adaptations. It is widely used in psychological research, the theoretical and methodological basis of which is the psychoanalytic concept, in particular, the theory of O. Kernberg (Kernberg, 1986) on different levels of structural organization of personality, which underlies the psychoanalyst's choice of a strategy for working with a client. The created test version of the IPO-R-UKR questionnaire passed the stages of two-sided "double-blind" translation and was agreed upon by a team of philologists and psychologists. Based on the results of 1152 people participating in the empirical research, we have proven IPO-R-UKR to have a similar to the original two-factor structure, good internal consistency of the scales, construct convergent, and criterion validity. Thus, IPO-R-UKR can be used in practical psychological activities and scientific research to identify criteria for the structural organization of personality, such as reality testing, identity diffusion, and mechanisms of psychological defenses, as well as for screening diagnostics of the structural level of personality organization by Kernberg (1986).

Features of the use of psychological defense mechanisms and coping strategies by the civilian population affected by a military emergency

The article presents the results of a study of the specifics of psychological protection mechanisms and coping strategies for civilians affected by the local armed conflict, which has been raging in eastern Ukraine for the eighth year. It is shown that despite the non-constructive actions of protective mechanisms, they are widely used by all categories of the affected population. There is a general trend in the frequency of use of protective mechanisms such as compensation and rationalization. It is proved that: (a) victims who have received a more intense psychological shock will have a tendency to plunge into their emotional experiences in difficult situations; (B) the most effective and rational ways to overcome the situation of vital threat will be chosen by the least affected persons. The results obtained during the study allow us to state that: protective mechanisms, despite their inherent constructiveness, are widely used by all categories of the affected population in conditions of prolonged local armed conflict. Each of the groups of subjects has certain features of their use, however, no pattern has been identified. Despite the different levels of shock experienced, the study of all groups is characterized by a general trend towards the predominance of the use of such protective mechanisms as compensation and rationalization. Victims who have received a more intense psychological shock are characterized by a tendency in difficult situations to immerse themselves in their emotional experiences. The least effective and rational ways to overcome the situation of vital threat will be chosen by the least affected persons. The peculiarities of the use of coping strategies and mechanisms of psychological protection by employees of the security and defense sector of Ukraine need further study.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DEFENCE OF THE PERSONALITY FROM INFORMATION PRESSURE DURING THE WAR: ASPECTS OF SUBJECTNESS

The purpose of the article is identification of the main resources of subjectness to create and maintain a system of successful psychological defence of the personality during the war. Research methods. The research uses theoretical analysis of modern sources on the topic of research, synthesis, comparison and generalization of data from scientific sources, design-technological methods. Results. The analysis of the personality psychological defence mechanisms from informational pressure during the war in the context of the subjectness approach is carried out. It was found that its effectiveness depends on the level of awareness of the use of psychological defence. The main resources for successful psychological protection are identified: mechanisms of subjectness formation, mechanisms of psychological defence, resilience, coping strategy. Conclusions. A set of solutions has been proposed that will allow effective prevention and counteraction to the negative impact of information pressure during the war on society as a whole and on individuals. An example of successful step-by-step phased psychological protection against information pressure during the war is given. Keywords: defense mechanisms, subjectness, Ukraine, war, informational pressure.

A psychosocial exploration of resistances to service user involvement in United Kingdom National Health Service (NHS) mental health services.

Policy promotes the active participation of those with lived experience of mental health difficulties in UK NHS mental health services, from the level of collaborative care-planning to service delivery, leadership and development. However, research indicates different forms of resistance to the implementation of such service user involvement. This article reports the findings of a qualitative, interview-based study which used Foucauldian discourse analysis and psychoanalytic theory to understand how resistances are produced through the interplay of clinical mental health professionals' subjectivity and their organisational context. Service user involvement was found to highlight conflicts within clinicians' roles. Central to this conflict was an ambivalent relationship to the power associated with these roles. Power could protect professionals from work related stresses, but could also be used to dominate, silence and coerce service users in ways that conflicted with the core function of providing care. Whilst important, raising awareness of such conflict will arouse discomfort and resistance where psychological defences are challenged. A parallel is drawn with psychotherapeutic change, in which resistance must be understood and worked with as part of meaningful change.

Assessment of psychological defense mechanisms in women with somatoform disorder using Thematic Apperception Test-Based Measure

IntroductionMaladaptive defense mechanisms can play a role in maintaining the inadequate social and psychological adaptation of patients.ObjectivesThis study aims to establish if denial is one of the central psychological defense mechanisms in patients with somatoform disorder.Methods10 female patients at Moscow Clinical hospital №33 with somatoform disorder and panic attacks (aged 20 to 43) and 20 female participants of the control group (aged 19 to 35) were presented with 10 pictures of the Thematic Apperception Test. Pictures were previously annotated into 4 groups: neutral stimuli (2, 6GF), provoking self-blame / depression ideation stimuli (3GF,14, 15, 17GF), provoking aggression ideation stimuli (8ВМ, 18 GF, 9GF), provoking aggression/self-blame ideation stimuli (13 MF). We conducted content analyses of stories. Mann-Whitney U-test was used.Results Table 1 presents analyses categories, examples of stories, and group differences.Table 1CategoryExamplePatients,% of storiesControl group,% of storiesMann-Whitney U-testDenial of interpersonal/internal conflict«It is a beautiful day. The girl is enjoying the sunlight. Her life is going well» (17GF).90%47%*р&lt;0,01Denial of aggressive ideation«She won`t smother her, she just wants to scare her a little» (18 GF).70%30%р&lt;0,05Denial of depressive /self-blame ideation«Is she dead or not? I think, no. They were having sex and now they are sleepy» (13MF).*Several patients told more than 1 story to a picture.ConclusionsPatients with the somatoform disorder tended to use descriptions without interpersonal or internal conflicts and/or to deny any characters‘ negative intentions or the negative consequences of their actions.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

الضغوط النفسية لدى طلبة عوائل النازحين

As the Iraqi society has been exposed to severe damage resulting from the practices of sectarian violence, the change of the previous regime that made it plunge in a state of imbalance and instability, and one of the manifestations of these practices is the forced displacement of citizens (Forced Displaced), and it put the Iraqi society in a torrential torrent of suffering, some of which extend to eras to originally a distant time period, and then extends to a strange phenomenon in our society that has been enforced by the current political events and the current situation, which is aggression and the outbreak of violence and aggressive treatment, as militants and armed groups want to consolidate their influence by force of arms, and from the manifestations of aggression, threats of death and intimidation on sectarian or ethnic grounds or other reasons that resulted in forced displacement, be it individual or collective. Taking care of students and guide them requires all educators and teachers, especially psychologists, to exercise their role and responsibilities in taking into account the psychological situation of those students by reaching them and continuing efforts to overcome obstacles, provide them with assistance and solve their problems, provide a clean, educational and social environment in an appropriate manner, and provide psychological care, support and psychological support to strengthen their immunity and psychological defense, until they reach the level of proper psychological adjustment to these emergency circumstances in their lives. Therefore, the research problem is revealed in the severity of the crises and the severity of the psychological pressures facing the displaced students in the emotional, economic, health , studying , social and other fields, until it has become a great burden that occupies the shoulders of its members, which requires disclosure and response to it and finding solutions that would reduce the negative effects that resulted from these crises , as Many researchers confirm that crises in general and the period that follow them in particular cause psychological, social, and health effects that are painful for the community, which are reflected in the psychological stability of its members and their social compatibility, such as feelings of sadness, failure, frustration, depression, tension, anxiety about the unknown future, feeling of insecurity towards others, and ease of infection with physical diseases. The research was applied to a sample represented by students of displaced families who face psychological pressures, the reason of these situations, experiences, and painful conditions, and depleting the individual's energy and the increase in the level of his anxiety. Keywords / pressures, students of displaced families, government schools

Functional Neurologic Symptom Disorders: Bridging the Chasm between the Psychoanalytic and Neuroscientific Understandings

Introduction Since before the time of “Anna O”, the functional neurologic symptom disorder (FNSD) has captivated psychiatry. While the definitive psychopathological mechanism for this phenomenon remains elusive, it is nevertheless of great value for patients and clinicians alike to develop a more nuanced understanding of FNSD. It is necessary to make an enquiry into the mechanism by bridging the psychoanalytic and neurobiological theories.Objectives1.Elucidate psychoanalytic concepts to FNSD 2.Elucidate neuroscientific aspects of FNSD 3.Reconcile the chasm between the two conceptsMethodsComprehensive review of literature at the interface of psychoanalytic and neuroscientific theories of FNSDResultsEmerging evidence have found putative explanations to account for FNSD. Orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate gyrus, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and striatothalamocortical circuits have been implicated. Number of total studies remain small with each study having few participants. This necessitates a degree of caution in interpreting results. Thus far, mechanisms such as signal rerouting or hypoactivation of specific frontal regions appears to play a material role in FNSD. Neuroscience may be approaching to providing evidence that psychological defenses may have neurobiological correlates that can be measured in certain conditions. However, a definitive answer remains elusive.ConclusionsThe expanding narrative of a relatively nascent dialogue between neuroscience and psychoanalysis remains not only clinically relevant, but also promotes a holistic view of patients with psychiatric illnesses. Through our discussion, psychoanalytic theory is woven into the current neurobiological framework for FNSD, which we believe will assist clinicians provide empathic care and help patients develop a more adaptive and meaningful explanatory paradigm of their lived experience.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

The difficult symbolic construction of physicians’ and nurses’ experiences working in COVID-19 intensive care units: A qualitative study on reports at a university public hospital in Southeastern Brazil

IntroductionHumanistic studies that explore symbolic aspects of the experience of working on the COVID-19 frontline are necessary. Do these professionals have psychic time to symbolize such acute experiences? We expect these preliminary findings of this research provide subsidies for discussing psychological management in groups with these professionals.ObjectivesTo interpret emotional meanings reported by physicians and nurses on their experiences of working at COVID-19 intensive care units.MethodsClinical-qualitative design. Data collection with semi-directed interviews with open-ended questions in-depth applied to a sample of six professionals, closed by theoretical information saturation, in a Brazilian university general hospital. Trigger question: “Talk about psychological meanings of your experience in face of management of patients with COVID-19 at ICU”. Data treatment by the Seven Steps of the Clinical-Qualitative Content Analysis. Theoretical framework of Medical Psychology using Balintian concepts.ResultsWe raised 3 categories. (1) Psychic time and absence of symbolization in face of the pandemic; (2) Denial as a defense or psychosocial adaptation mechanisms; (3) Tensions and family support: triggers of ambivalent emotional experiences.ConclusionsRaw experience of COVID-19 pandemic did not allow for realization of symbolization. Psychological defenses are manifested, either to maintain balance or to deny the existence of dangers related to mental health. Presence of families and health team confirm that the feeling of loneliness is avoided. Anxieties related to the fear of contamination are recurrent. There is dual relationship regarding the emotional experiences of health professionals, but the data point to importance of looking at how these individuals perceive and experience the pandemic.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

Research on the Influence of Different Psychological Defense Mechanisms on the Psychology of Students

The contradiction between id and ego is the root cause of various problems in the growth process of students. On the basis of understanding the functions of different psychological defense mechanisms, teachers can assist students in dealing with all areas of inner conflict and thus achieve a balanced state. Psychological defense mechanism is one of the means for individuals to deal with setbacks and anxiety. It plays an important role in preserving an individual’s mental health. This paper mainly analyzes the impact of different types of psychological defense mechanisms in the growth process of students and discusses its importance as well as its significance. Finally, by analyzing its influencing factors, this paper also proposes strategies for adjusting the psychological defense mechanism, so as to provide reference for teachers in the practical education process.

The frequency of pregnancy recognition across the gestational spectrum and its consequences in the United States

The frequency of pregnancy recognition across the gestational spectrum and its consequences in the United States

The 2020 Belarusian presidential election and conspiracy theories in the Russo-Ukrainian conflict

Abstract This article contributes to the growing literature on how authoritarian regimes deploy disinformation and conspiracy theories to achieve foreign policy goals. While the effectiveness of these measures is disputed, our study—which is based on a rarely occurring natural experiment—makes an empirical contribution in this direction. Based on the analysis of survey materials collected in Mariupol, Ukraine, around the time of the tumultuous events surrounding the Belarusian presidential election of 2020, we show that, given the right conditions, a critical juncture event in one country can rapidly influence existing patterns of relevant conspiracy belief in a neighbouring one. The right conditions, in this case, include a massive disinformation campaign channelled through (pro-)Russian media, against the backdrop of conspiracy theories already in circulation in Ukraine. The implication of this finding is that the disinformation weapon becomes far more effective when it manages to offer a straightforward explanation (a conspiracy theory) of a critical juncture event that is otherwise complex and multilayered, and that adequate psychological defence mechanisms are needed to mitigate and counter this effect.