Psychol Bull Research Articles

Proactive and Reactive Violence among Intimate Partner Violent Men Diagnosed with Antisocial and Borderline Personality Disorder

Personality disorder features have been an important basis of many batterer typologies (Babcock et al. J Fam Violence 15:391–409, 2000; Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart Psychol Bull 116:476–497, 1994), most notably Antisocial and Borderline Personality Disorders. Aggression that partner violent men commit has also been found to be heterogeneous, motivated by the need to control (proactive) or enacted out of emotion (reactive). In the present study, men who were physically abusive towards their female partner (N = 124 couples) were administered the SCID-II diagnostic interview for Antisocial (ASPD) and Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). It was hypothesized that partner violent men diagnosed with ASPD would show highest levels of proactive violence whereas men diagnosed with BPD (alone or comorbidly with ASPD) were expected to be reactively violent. Results suggest that violence perpetrated by men with different personality disorders differs in its function. Within the context of intimate relationships, BPD/comorbid men appear to use violence more reactively, while ASPD men tend to use violence both proactively and reactively. Implications for treatment are discussed.

Hypotheses testing for fuzzy robust regression parameters

The classical least squares (LS) method is widely used in regression analysis because computing its estimate is easy and traditional. However, LS estimators are very sensitive to outliers and to other deviations from basic assumptions of normal theory [Huynh H. A comparison of four approaches to robust regression. Psychol Bull 1982;92:505–12; Stephenson D. 2000. Available from: http://folk.uib.no/ngbnk/kurs/notes/node38.html; Xu R, Li C. Multidimensional least-squares fitting with a fuzzy model. Fuzzy Sets and Systems 2001;119:215–23.]. If there exists outliers in the data set, robust methods are preferred to estimate parameters values. We proposed a fuzzy robust regression method by using fuzzy numbers when x is crisp and Y is a triangular fuzzy number and in case of outliers in the data set, a weight matrix was defined by the membership function of the residuals. In the fuzzy robust regression, fuzzy sets and fuzzy regression analysis was used in ranking of residuals and in estimation of regression parameters, respectively [Şanlı K, Apaydin A. Fuzzy robust regression analysis based on the ranking of fuzzy sets. Inernat. J. Uncertainty Fuzziness and Knowledge-Based Syst 2008;16:663–81.]. In this study, standard deviation estimations are obtained for the parameters by the defined weight matrix. Moreover, we propose another point of view in hypotheses testing for parameters.

The reliability and validity of the short version of the WHO Quality of Life Instrument in an Arab general population

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES:There is rising interest in quality of life (QOL) research in Arabian countries. The aim of this study was to assess in a nationwide sample of Kuwaiti subjects the reliability and validity of the World Health Organization Quality of Life (WHOQOL-BREF), a shorter version of the widely used QOL assessment instrument that comprises 26 items in the domains of physical health, psychological health, social relationships, and the environment.METHODS:A one-in-three systematic random proportionate sample of consenting Kuwaiti nationals attending large cooperative stores and municipal government offices in the six governorates completed the Arabic translation of the questionnaire. The indices assessed included test-retest reliability, internal consistency, item internal consistency (IIC), item discriminant validity (IDV), known-groups and construct validity.RESULTS:There were 3303 participants (44.8% males, 55.2% females, mean age 35.4 years, range 16 to 87 years). The intra-class correlation for the test-retest statistic and the internal consistency values for the full questionnaire and the domains had a Cronbach's alpha≥0.7. Of the 24 items that constitute the domains, 21 met the IIC requirement of correlation ≥0.4 with the corresponding domain, while 16 met the IDV criterion of having a higher correlation with their corresponding domain than other domains. Domain scores discriminated significantly between well and sick groups. In the factor analysis, four strong factors emerged with the same construct as in the WHO report.CONCLUSION:The Arabic translation of the WHOQOL-BREF has impressive reliability and validity indices. The poor IDV findings are due to the multidimensional nature of the questionnaire. The highly significant validity indices should reassure researchers that the questionnaire represents the same constructs across cultures. Negatively worded items possibly need refinement.

Comprehension of Affective Prosody in Veterans With Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one of the few psychiatric conditions in which a subjective decrease in emotional range serves as a diagnostic criterion. In order to investigate whether veterans with chronic PTSD also experienced objective limitations in emotional perception, the authors administered the Aprosodia Battery to a group of 11 veterans with chronic PTSD, nine subjects with right hemisphere damage, seven subjects with left hemisphere damage, and 12 comparison subjects. The patients with PTSD displayed significant deficiencies in the comprehension and discriminative components of affective speech, similar in severity and performance profile on the Aprosodia Battery to the individuals with focal right hemisphere damage due to ischemic infarction.

Factors associated with intrusive cancer-related worries in women undergoing cancer genetic risk assessment

One hundred and twenty-eight women undergoing assessment for genetic risk of breast/ovarian cancer completed questionnaires at entry into the assessment process and following risk provision. The key variable of interest was the level of intrusive worries at each time, and factors associated with the level of intrusive worries following risk provision. Based on the CARA model (Renner, Pers Soc Psychol Bull 30:384-396, 2004), it was expected that an unexpected risk assessment (whether good or bad) would result in high levels of intrusive thoughts. Other potential moderators of worry included neuroticism, level of threat experienced (low control, high perceived risk), the use of differing coping efforts, and the available social support. Of note was that while levels of intrusive thoughts fell in all risk groups following risk provision, unexpectedly only women found to be at population risk reported an increase of active attempts to distract from intrusive worries at this time. The CARA model was not supported. However, intrusion scores were independently associated with higher levels of neuroticism, a lack of confidant support, and a confrontive coping response. Active avoidance scores were uniquely associated with being assigned as population risk, neuroticism, lack of confidant and affective support, and the use of avoidant coping. Together, these variables accounted for 33% of the variance in intrusion scores and 31% of the variance in avoidance scores. The implications of these findings is discussed.

Le rôle joué par les événements stressants sur la transmission intergénérationnelle de l’attachement

Associations between maternal internal working models (IWM) (adult attachment projective: AAP) [George, C., West, M., Pettem, O., 1997. Adult attachment projective: protocol and classification scoring system. Manuscrit non publié. Mills College, Californie], preschool child attachment (separation–reunion procedure) [Cassidy, J., Marvin, R. S., 1992. Attachment organization in preschool children: procedures and coding manual. Manuscrit non publié. MacArthur Working Group on Attachment; Dev Psychol 24 (1988) 415–526] and stressful life-events were examined in 119 dyads. A convergence for transmission similar to what has been reported in the literature [Psychol Bull 117(3) (1995) 387–403] was found (76% for security, kappa = 0.53; p < 0.001). Moreover, unresolved mothers with disorganized–controlling children reported more stressful life-events (F [3, 106] = 4.70; p < 0.01). The present study therefore indicates the importance of including contextual factors [van IJzendoorn, M.H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., 1997. Intergenerational transmission of attachment: a move to the contextual level. In: Atkinson et, L., Zucker, K.J. (Eds.), Attachment and Psychopathology. The Gilford Press, New York, pp. 135–170] to better understand attachment transmission and offer support for the validity of the AAP.

Mindful Learning: A Moderator of Gender Differences in Mathematics Performance

Past research has demonstrated that males outperform females in mathematics (Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S. J., Psychol Bull 107:139–155, 1990a). Research has also shown that encouraging mindful learning–learning information in a conditional rather than an absolute way–can increase mathematics performance in females (Ritchhart, R., & Perkins, D. N., J Social Issues 56:27–47, 2000). This paper examines the moderating role of mindful learning for gender differences, by manipulating mindful learning for females’ and males’ performance on a novel math task. The results from this study show that males performed better than females when mindful learning was not encouraged (absolute instruction), but males and females performed equally well when mindful learning was encouraged (conditional instruction). Thus we find that mindful learning moderates gender differences in math performance.

Does Moral Conviction Really Override Concerns About Procedural Justice? A Reexamination of the Value Protection Model

A large research literature on procedural justice demonstrates that people are more accepting of decisions that they do not feel are advantageous or fair when those decisions are arrived at using just procedures. Recently, several papers (Skitka, Pers Soc Psychol Bull, 28:588–597, 2002; Skitka and Mullen, Pers Soc Psychol Bull, 28:1419–1429, 2002) have argued that these procedural mechanisms do not have a significant influence when the decision made concerns issues about which those involved have strong moral feelings (“a moral mandate”). A reanalysis of the data in these two studies indicates that, contrary to the strong position taken by the authors, i.e. that “when people have a moral mandate about an outcome, any means justifies the mandated end” (Skitka, Pers Soc Psychol Bull, 28:594, 2002), the justice of decision-making procedures is consistently found to significantly influence people’s reactions to decisions by authorities and institutions even when their moral mandates are threatened.

The functional anatomy of the MMN: A DCM study of the roving paradigm

Using dynamic causal modelling (DCM), we have presented provisional evidence to suggest: (i) the mismatch negativity (MMN) is generated by self-organised interactions within a hierarchy of cortical sources [Garrido, M.I., Kilner, J.M., Kiebel, S.J., Stephan, K.E., Friston, K.J., 2007. Dynamic causal modelling of evoked potentials: a reproducibility study. NeuroImage 36, 571–580] and (ii) the MMN rests on plastic change in both extrinsic (between-source) and intrinsic (within source) connections (Garrido et al., under review). In this work we re-visit these two key issues in the context of the roving paradigm. Critically, this paradigm allows us to discount any differential response to differences in the stimuli per se, because the standards and oddballs are physically identical. We were able to confirm both the hierarchical nature of the MMN generation and the conjoint role of changes in extrinsic and intrinsic connections. These findings are consistent with a predictive coding account of repetition–suppression and the MMN, which gracefully accommodates two important mechanistic perspectives; the model-adjustment hypothesis [Winkler, I., Karmos, G., Näätänen, R., 1996. Adaptive modelling of the unattended acoustic environment reflected in the mismatch negativity event-related potential. Brain Res. 742, 239–252; Näätänen, R., Winkler, I., 1999. The concept of auditory stimulus representation in cognitive neuroscience. Psychol Bull 125, 826–859; Sussman, E., Winkler, I., 2001. Dynamic sensory updating in the auditory system. Brain Res. Cogn Brain Res. 12, 431–439] and the adaptation hypothesis [May, P., Tiitinen, H., Ilmoniemi, R.J., Nyman, G., Taylor, J.G., Näätänen, R., 1999. Frequency change detection in human auditory cortex. J. Comput. Neurosci. 6, 99–120; Jääskeläinen, I.P., Ahveninen, J., Bonmassar, G., Dale, A.M., Ilmoniemi, R.J., Levänen, S., Lin, F.H., May, P., Melcher, J., Stufflebeam, S., Tiitinen, H., Belliveau, J.W., 2004. Human posterior auditory cortex gates novel sounds to consciousness. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 101, 6809–6814].

Isolating global and specific factors in developmental dyslexia: a study based on the rate and amount model (RAM)

Using the reading-age match approach, research on developmental dyslexia focuses on specific (e.g., phonological) deficits and disregards the possible role of global influences in determining the disturbance. In the present study, we set out to investigate the role of both global and specific factors in Italian developmental dyslexics using the rate-amount model (RAM; Faust et al. in Psychol Bull 125:777-799, 1999). Vocal reaction times (RT) in naming pictures, words and non-words of varying length were measured in a group of 26 sixth- to eighth-grade dyslexics and 81 age-matched control readers. Dyslexics' raw RTs showed greater lexicality (longer RTs to non-words than words) and length (longer RTs to long stimuli than short ones) effects than controls'. We found that one global factor predicted most individual variation in naming words and non-words, but not pictures. When data transformations, effective in controlling for the global factor, were applied to the data, the greater lexicality effect in dyslexics vanished, due to the influence of the global factor and not a specific failure in the non-lexical reading procedure. Conversely, the greater length effect in dyslexics persisted. Overall, dyslexics' reading performance was best explained as due to the influence of both a global factor for processing orthographic material prelexically and to the specific influence of stimulus length. This conceptualisation appears more promising for bridging the gap between behavioural and functional imaging studies than traditional approaches, which focus on the detection of specific reading deficits. It is concluded that RAM is a useful tool for disentangling the components that are impaired in reading and for defining the characteristics of the global factor, because the paradigm is more powerful for studying developmental dyslexia than the reading-age match method.

Scientists Probe PTSD Effects, Treatments

San Diego—As a new generation of soldiers returns home bearing psychological scars of war, interest in and support for research on disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are high. At the Society for Neuroscience’s annual scientific meeting in November, researchers presented more than a half dozen studies probing the disorder. The studies’ findings included a biomarker that may one day help identify individuals with the disorder, enhanced explanations of how trauma may alter brain function, the discovery of intergenerational effects of trauma, and a drug that helped prevent PTSD-associated damage in rats. While many of the results are very preliminary, this recent spurt of research is a promising sign in a field that lacks validated treatment options despite a tremendous and growing demand for therapy. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, more than 5 million individuals in the United States have PTSD in any given year. A recent Institute of Medicine panel, which reviewed about 200 studies of therapies for the disorder, failed to find sufficient evidence of efficacy to recommend most of the currently used treatments (http://www.iom.edu/CMS/3793 /39330/47389.aspx). Exposure-based therapies were the only option found to have sufficient scientific support. The panel noted that many studies lacked sufficient quality to judge the effectiveness of various interventions and that there is an urgent need for high-quality trials of both pharmacological and behavioral interventions for PTSD. SEX AND GENERATIONAL EFFECTS Epidemiological studies have consistently found that PTSD is more prevalent in women than men (Olff M et al. Psychol Bull. 2007;133[2]:183-204). Rachel Yehuda, PhD, of the Traumatic Stress Studies Program at Mount Sinai School of Medicine, in New York City, discussed this and other sex-related issues in PTSD during a symposium on sex differences in stress response at the meeting. Yehuda explained that this higher prevalence may reflect women’s higher likelihood of experiencing the types of trauma that lead to PTSD, rather than greater biological vulnerability. For example, about half of individuals who have been raped develop PTSD, and women are 10 times more likely than men to be raped, she said. Sex-based differences in general stress response have been documented, and some evidence suggests there may be differences between men and women with PTSD. For instance, individuals with PTSD who have been raped tend to respond better to cognitive behavioral therapy than do combat veterans with PTSD, she said. “We need to ask whether gender differences in PTSD are simply a carryover of gender differences in stress response, or whether the actual experience and biology of PTSD is different [in men and women],” she explained. Additionally, evidence suggests that having a mother who has had PTSD may increase an individual’s risk of developing the disorder. Yehuda and her colleagues recently probed the potential biological basis of this enhanced vulnerability. The study examined cortisol levels in relation to circadian rhythms in 23 individuals who had at least 1 parent who was both a Holocaust survivor and had PTSD, 10 individuals who had at least one Holocaust survivor parent and no parent with PTSD, and 16 controls (Yehuda R et al. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64[9]:1040-1048). None of the participants themselves had PTSD. The researchers found that individuals whose mothers had PTSD were more likely to have low cortisol levels and other alter-

Inhibitory functioning across ADHD subtypes: Recent findings, clinical implications, and future directions

Although growing consensus supports the role of deficient behavioral inhibition as a central feature of the combined subtype of ADHD (ADHD/C; Barkley 1997 Psychol Bull 121:65-94; Nigg 2001 Psychol Bull 127:571-598), little research has focused on how this finding generalizes to the primarily inattentive subtype (ADHD/I). This question holds particular relevance in light of recent work suggesting that ADHD/I might be better characterized as a disorder separate from ADHD/C (Diamond 2005 Dev Psychopathol 17:807-825; Milich et al. 2001 Clin Psychol Sci Pract 8:463-488). This article describes major findings in the area of inhibitory performance in ADHD and highlights recent research suggesting important areas of divergence between the subtypes. In particular, preliminary findings point to potential differences between the subtypes with respect to how children process important contextual information from the environment, such as preparatory cues that precede responses and rewarding or punishing feedback following behavior. These suggestive findings are discussed in the context of treatment implications, which could involve differential intervention approaches for each subtype targeted to the specific deficit profiles that characterize each group of children. Future research avenues aimed toward building a sound theoretical model of ADHD/I and a better understanding of its relation to ADHD/C are also presented. Specifically, investigators are encouraged to continue studying the complex interplay between inhibitory and attentional processes, as this area seems particularly promising in its ability to improve our understanding of the potentially distinct pathologies underlying the ADHD subtypes.

Ask the Expert: Major Depressive Disorder

Back to table of contents Previous article Next article CLINICAL SYNTHESISFull AccessAsk the Expert: Major Depressive DisorderGlen O. Gabbard, M.D.Glen O. GabbardSearch for more papers by this author, M.D.Published Online:1 Jan 2008https://doi.org/10.1176/foc.6.1.foc46AboutSectionsPDF/EPUB ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InEmail I have a high-functioning patient with major depression. He is responding to an SSRI medication, but I am contemplating adding psychotherapy. What are the advantages of psychodynamic psychotherapy compared with CBT for a patient like this?The question is a good one, one that is frequently asked in clinical settings. First of all, before determining the type of psychotherapy, one must decide if the SSRI is sufficient by itself. Studies of combined SSRIs and psychotherapy are not conclusive about an additive value when the two treatments are combined, except for the case of severe depressions. In mild to moderate depression, often the decision boils down to what the patient wants and whether the recovery with medication is only partial.We know from research that both CBT and psychodynamic therapy can be helpful in the treatment of major depression (1, 2). Although there are more randomized controlled trials supporting CBT, we have few data to determine which patient might do better with which type of therapy. Some patients are highly motivated to seek further understanding about what has caused their depression and what might lead to relapse. This wish to understand may be an indication for adding psychotherapy, and those patients who want more than symptom relief may prefer a dynamic approach. Some depressed patients do not like the prescriptive aspect of CBT and may object to homework. It is worth exploring with the patient if he or she has a preference for one type of psychotherapy over another.A strong argument can be made for further exploration of vulnerability factors that lead to the risk of relapse. We know that the propensity for relapse after symptom-directed treatment is profound (3). Recent research suggests that certain relational or interpersonal schemas of self and others, accompanied by cognitive and affective components, may establish environments that are depressogenic (4). It may be that symptom-focused treatment for depression may temporarily address these schemas, but ongoing stressors activate the vulnerabilities again, leading to recurrent depression. Hence a critically important part of the psychotherapy of depression may be an exploration of the interpersonal schemas that appear to create patient expectations and subsequent disappointments in relationships. By focusing on these factors, it is possible that the stressors and vulnerability can be mitigated.It is noteworthy in this regard that in the elegant work of Kendler et al. (5), they found in a population of female twins that stressors with particular meaning to the individual were more closely linked to the onset of major depression. For example, an episode of depression was predicted by stressors with higher ratings of humiliation and loss because of a separation initiated by a significant other. These stressors are more depressogenic than pure loss events such as death. A dynamic psychotherapist may be able to link these feelings of humiliation and depression to the narcissistic injury inherent in being “dumped” by a partner. This exploration may lead to specific patterns of internal object relationships that result in recurrent self-defeating patterns. Further discussion of these issues may lead to a sense of mastery over previously unconscious relational patterns and may strengthen the patient's resilience regarding the risk of further episodes.CME DisclosureGlen O. Gabbard, M.D., Brown Foundation Chair of Psychoanalysis and Professor of Psychiatry, Baylor College of Medicine.Dr. Gabbard reports no competing interests.REFERENCES1 Beck AT: The current status of cognitive therapy: a 40-year retrospective. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 953– 959Crossref, Google Scholar2 Leichsenring F, Rabung S, Leibing E: The efficacy of short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy in specific psychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004; 61: 1208– 1216Crossref, Google Scholar3 Ingram RE, Price JN (eds.): Vulnerability to Psychopathology: Risks across the Lifespan. New York, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002Google Scholar4 Zuroff DC, Mongrain M, Santor DA: Conceptualizing and measuring personality vulnerability to depression: comment on Coyne and Whiffen (1995). Psychol Bull 2004; 130/3: 489– 511Crossref, Google Scholar FiguresReferencesCited byDetailsCited byNone Volume 6Issue 1 Winter 2008Pages 46-46Major Depressive Disorder and Suicide PDF download

Interaction episodes as engines of relationship change

We discuss a framework for analyzing interaction episode patterns that culminate in business relationship changes. A nomenclature for mapping and characterizing patterns of episodes that take place over time and within social space provides a new approach to relationship analysis. We introduce and define interacts as the building blocks of episodes and discuss the meaning and implications of episode valences. Building on ideas from Flanagan's [Flanagan, John C. The critical incident technique. Psychol Bull 1954; 51 (4): 327–358] critical incident technique, the new nomenclature includes critical events in which customers and suppliers make changes to resource ties and activity links that redefine a business relationship's structure. We employ network theory to evoke endogenous and exogenous influences on episodes. Also, we identify other influences on interactions and relationship change, including asymmetries in actor perceptions and information, tolerance zones for interpreting outcomes of episodes, difficulties perceiving patterns, and relationship entropy.

Functional Anatomy of Humor: Positive Affect and Chronic Mental Illness

Functional Anatomy of Humor: Positive Affect and Chronic Mental Illness

A Person-Centered Approach to Subjective Well-Being

Rooted in Diener’s (Psychol Bull 95:542–575, 1984) three-component model of subjective well-being (SWB), the present work employed a person-centered approach to studying SWB based on Shmotkin’s (Rev Gen Psychol 9:291–325, 2005) dynamic systems framework. Within-individual configurations of life satisfaction (LS), positive affect (PA), and negative affect (NA) were explored using cluster analysis. Five distinct SWB configurations replicated within and across two samples (N = 756 first-year undergraduates; N = 550 community adults). A substantial number of participants reported a profile indicative of “high SWB” (high LS, frequent PA, infrequent NA). Consistent with expectations, these individuals were characterized by elevated mental, physical, and interpersonal functioning. In contrast, people with a “low SWB” profile reported the greatest dysfunction. Across the five clusters, however, adaptive functioning was not unique to individuals reporting a high SWB profile, nor was dysfunction unique to people characterized by a low SWB configuration. Results are discussed in terms of compensation and strain processes hypothesized by Shmotkin (2005). Implications for future research on SWB are considered.

Hyperactivity and attention deficit: clinical foundations

Developmental Medicine & Child NeurologyVolume 49, Issue 6 p. 472-476 Free Access Hyperactivity and attention deficit: clinical foundations This new occasional feature is intended to give a taste of new titles in the Clinics in Developmental Medicine Series.This is an extract from Chapter 1 of ‘People with Hyper-activity: Understanding and Managing Their Problems’ edited by Professor Eric Taylor. The book is published by Mac Keith Press and will be available from June (see inside back cover). First published: 21 May 2007 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00472.xAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat References APA. (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn (DSM-IV). Washington , DC : American Psychiatric Association. Barkley RA. (1997) Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol Bull. 21: 65– 94. Kuntsi J, Stevenson J. (2001) Psychological mechanisms in hyperactivity: II. The role of genetic factors. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 42: 211– 219. Rubia K, Smith AB, Brammer MJ, Taylor E. (2003) Right inferior prefrontal cortex mediates response inhibition while mesial prefrontal cortex is responsible for error detection. Neuroimage. 1: 351– 358. Rubia K, Smith AB, Brammer MJ, Toone B, Taylor E. (2005) Abnormal brain activation during inhibition and error detection in medication-naive adolescents with ADHD. Am J Psychiatry. 162: 1067– 1075. Sagvolden T, Johansen EB, Aase H, Russell VA. (2005) A dynamic developmental theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) predominantly hyperactive/impulsive and combined subtypes. Behav Brain Sci. 28: 397– 419. Sergeant JA, Geurts H, Huijbregts S, Scheres A, Oosterlaan J. (2003) The top and the bottom of ADHD: a neuropsychological perspective. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 27: 583– 592. Solanto MV, Abikoff H, Sonuga-Barke E, Schachar R, Logan GD, Wigal T, Hechtman L, Hinshaw S, Turkel E. (2001) The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD: a supplement to the NIMH multimodal treatment study of AD/HD. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 29: 215– 228. Sonuga-Barke EJ. (2004) On the reorganization of incentive structure to promote delay tolerance: a therapeutic possibility for AD/HD Neural Plast 11: 23– 28. Swanson JM, Casey BJ, Nigg J, Castellanos FX, Volkow ND, Taylor E. (2004) Clinical and cognitive definitions of attention deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In: MI Posner, ed. Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention. New York : Guilford Press. pp. 430– 446. Taylor E, Sergeant J, Döpfner M, Gunning B, Overmeyer S, Mobins HJ, Eisert HG. (1998) Clinical guidelines for hyperkinetic disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 7: 184– 200. Van Der Meere J, Vreeling HJ, Sergeant J. (1992) A motor presetting study in hyperactive, learning disabled and control children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 33: 1347– 1354. WHO. (1992) International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. 10th edn (ICD-10). Geneva : World Health Organization. Volume49, Issue6June 2007Pages 472-476 ReferencesRelatedInformation

Socioeconomic Status and Obesity

The objective of this review was to update Sobal and Stunkard's exhaustive review of the literature on the relation between socioeconomic status (SES) and obesity (Psychol Bull 1989;105:260-75). Diverse research databases (including CINAHL, ERIC, MEDLINE, and Social Science Abstracts) were comprehensively searched during the years 1988-2004 inclusive, using "obesity," "socioeconomic status," and synonyms as search terms. A total of 333 published studies, representing 1,914 primarily cross-sectional associations, were included in the review. The overall pattern of results, for both men and women, was of an increasing proportion of positive associations and a decreasing proportion of negative associations as one moved from countries with high levels of socioeconomic development to countries with medium and low levels of development. Findings varied by SES indicator; for example, negative associations (lower SES associated with larger body size) for women in highly developed countries were most common with education and occupation, while positive associations for women in medium- and low-development countries were most common with income and material possessions. Patterns for women in higher- versus lower-development countries were generally less striking than those observed by Sobal and Stunkard; this finding is interpreted in light of trends related to globalization. Results underscore a view of obesity as a social phenomenon, for which appropriate action includes targeting both economic and sociocultural factors.

How to address group dynamics in virtual worlds

The study of group dynamics highlights the activity in the group in terms of its performance and communication. The experience of facilitating virtual communities and teams (Eunice and Kimball in (http://www.Tmn.com/~lisa/odn-teams.htm), 1997) suggests that groups go through the same stages either in face-to-face or in online mode. The paper brings together a theoretical framework based on the literature on virtual communities, Gestalt systems and online facilitation in order to address the issue of electronic togetherness, in particular from a group dynamics perspective. The empirical work on which the paper is based is an observation of a group of students in a training set playing a decision-making game. The model of Tuckman (Tuckman in Psychol Bull 63:384–399, 1965; Tuckman and Jensen in Group Organ Stud 2:419–427, 1977) is used as a framework within which to discuss the findings of the case. The paper finishes with concrete recommendations for facilitators of online communities and designers of the electronic spaces where these communities operate.

Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation scale—revised

Rodebaugh et al. [2004: Psychol Assess 2:169-181] recently performed a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation scale (BFNE; Leary, 1983: Psychol Bull 9:371-375]. Their study resulted in the emergence of a two-factor solution comprising straightforwardly worded items and reverse-worded items. They concluded by recommending use of only the straightforwardly worded items in the BFNE. Our intent in this study was to evaluate this recommendation through replication and extension. Participants included 385 undergraduates from the Universities of Regina and Houston, who provided responses to a questionnaire battery including either the BFNE or a revision utilizing straightforwardly worded versions of the reverse-worded items (BFNE-II). A CFA of the BFNE, using the two-factor model proposed by Rodebaugh et al., supported their conclusion that the reverse-worded items comprise a separate, methodologically based factor. However, CFA of the BFNE-II resulted in an acceptable unitary model that conforms to the theoretical basis for the BFNE, without risking loss of sensitivity from item removal. Additional analyses suggest use of the BFNE-II rather than a shortened form.