Psychic Distance Research Articles

Geographical orientation of exports: looking beyond the gravity model (on the example of four "Asian Тigers")

увеличением темпов глобализации, развитием транспортных и информационных технологий, вовлечением в международную торговлю большого количества компаний разного размера всё более широкий спектр факторов оказывает влияние на объём и географическую направленность торговли. В этой статье проверяется гипотеза, что при выходе на зарубежные рынки важную роль, наряду с географической дистанцией и ВВП стран-партнёров (классическая гравитационная модель) должна играть так называемая «психологическая дистанция». Сингапур, Гонконг, Республика Корея и Тайвань – экономики Азиатско-Тихоокеанского региона, которые показывали впечатляющие результаты развития с конца XX в. Одна из причин быстрого роста – ориентированность экономик на экспорт. В структуре внешней торговли «азиатских тигров» первичные товары составляют не более 2%. В то же время, экспорт именно производственных товаров, для которых характерно непостоянство качества, неоднородность и наличие специфических характеристик, должен быть подвержен сильному влиянию психологической дистанции. Успех таких товаров на иностранном рынке во многом зависит от индивидуальных ка-честв товара и маркетинговой стратегии продавца. В данной статье представлены результаты исследования влияния ряда факторов, помимо лежащих в основе грави-тационной модели, на экспортные потоки четырёх «азиатских тигров» – Сингапура, Гонконга, Южной Кореи и Тайваня в 88 стран. С помощью регрессионного анализа была протестирована связь между независимыми переменными (культурная дис-танция, прочие определяющие факторы психологической дистанции, разница во времени и наличие соглашений о свободной торговле) и объёмом экспорта в каж-дую из 88 торговых стран-партнёров. В качестве контрольных переменных высту-пили показатели гравитационной модели (физическое расстояние и ВВП). По ре-зультатам исследования авторы пришли к выводу, что полная картина зависимости экспортных потоков, в частности от психологической дистанции, неоднозначна. Возможно, существующие модели измерения психологической дистанции на уров-не страны требуют изменений, пересмотра включаемых факторов. Ключевые слова: международная торговля, экспорт, гравитационная модель, культурная дистанция, психологическая дистанция, определяющие факторы психо-логической дистанции, «азиатские тигры», Гонконг, Сингапур, Тайвань, Республи-ка Корея, регрессионный анализ. As the pace of globalization accelerates, the transport and information technologies develop even more rapidly, and a large number of companies of different sizes get involved in international trade, wider range of factors affect the volume and geographic focus of trade. This article tests the hypothesis that while entering foreign markets, along with the geographical distance and GDP of partner countries (the classical gravity model), the "psychic distance", also, plays an important role. Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan are the economies of the Asia-Pacific region that have achieved impressive development goals since the end of the 20th century. Rapid growth was partially triggered by the export orientation of these economies. In the foreign trade structure of the "Four Asian Tigers", primary goods make up no more than 2%. At the same time, the exports of manufactured goods – which exhibit inconsistency in quality, heterogeneity, and various specific features – should be strongly influenced by the psychic distance. The success of such products sales in the foreign market largely depends on the individual qualities of the product and the seller's marketing strategy. This article presents the results of a study of the influence of a number of factors, in addition to those underlying the gravity model, on the export flows of the "Four Asian Tigers" (Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan) to 88 countries. The relationship between the ex-planatory variables (cultural distance, other determinants of psychic distance, time differ-ence and the existence of free trade agreements) and the volume of exports to each of the 88 trading partners was tested by using regression analysis. The gravity model indicators (physical distance and GDP) were used as control variables. Based on the results of the study, the authors came to the conclusion that the complete picture of the dependence of export flows, in particular, on psychic distance, is ambiguous. Perhaps the existing models for measuring psychic distance at the country level require changes, a revision of the factors included. Keywords. International trade, export, gravity model, cultural distance, psychic dis-tance, psychic distance stimuli, Four Asian Tigers, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, Re-public of Korea, regression analysis.

On building up a closer psychic distance as a fundamental ground of relationship between India and Korea: Focusing on Jeonlanam-Do in Korea

The Uppsala model (Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975) identifies cultural differences, market attractiveness, and core competence of nations or firms as the key factors affecting international market selection. Among these three factors, psychic distance caused by cultural differences is regarded as the most important factor. However, the psychic distance between India and Korea is not very close. The main objective of this paper is to examine the ways to boost economic relationships between India and Korea by building up a closer relationship of psychic distance. We suggest Jeonlanam-Do including Gwangju Metropolitan City (JDGC) in Korea as a stepping stone to make both countries' psychic distance closer as JD has several common grounds of intangible assets with India which includes its adherence to democracy, human rights and peace; the diverse food culture; and the religious zeal to Buddhism. We propose these common interests as a way to enhance the awareness of national brand 'India' in Korea which will attribute to a strategically developed economic relationship between Korea and India.

Psychic distance and FDI in Turkey: the role of industrial development and religion

Our paper analyses the critical role of psychic distance on Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) in an emerging economy, Turkey. Our results demonstrate that two psychic distance dimensions are significant when analysing FDI flows from OECD countries. First, psychic distance in industrial development has a positive effect, namely, greater industrial development distance between the investor country and Turkey increases FDI flows. Second, psychic distance in religion plays a negative role whereby greater distance between the investor country and Turkey reduces FDI flows. In addition, home country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and European Union (EU) membership positively affect foreign investments in Turkey. By contrast, and as expected, geographic distance has a negative effect.

The impact of psychic and geographical distance on internationalisation strategies: a study of New Zealand born global technology firms

This study examines the influence of psychic and geographical distance on the standardisation or adaptation of the four Ps international marketing mix strategies (product, price, promotion and place) by New Zealand born global digital technology firms as they internationalise. The authors evaluate the marketing strategy formulated by these firms in a qualitative study conducted across New Zealand. A physically isolated country such as New Zealand gives a markedly different perception of what constitutes as low, medium or high scale in terms of geographical and psychic distance. It was found that born global technology firms may be less inclined to consider geographical distance as a determining factor for early internationalisation. Furthermore, the geographical distance was perceived as having little influence on international marketing mix strategy formulation whereas psychic distance was perceived as having consequential influence.

American Fears

American Fears Keith Kopka (bio) Fear Icons: Essays Kisha Lewellyn Schlegel Mad Creek Books https://ohiostatepress.org/books/titles/9780814254943.html 160 Pages; Print, $19.95 How do we live meaningful lives in the face of the fears that our current culture forces us to confront? From the seemingly ubiquitous possibility of being shot as we shop, eat, or learn, to the less tangible fears of damnation or disappointment that religion instills in us from a very young age, Americans are forced to confront this question on a daily basis. This kind of self-interrogation about America's "culture of fear" is ripe for the inherently alarmist nature of the soundbite. However, as we all know, the goal of the sound bite is not to challenge or to inform; instead, its purpose lies only in gaining higher ratings. The 24-hour news cycle learned long ago that instilling fear fosters more viewership than complicated examinations of the symbiotic relationship between fear and cultural iconography. Luckily, literature continues to confront these more difficult cultural questions, and Kisha Lewllyn's Schlegel's debut collection of essays is the latest example of this kind of necessary literary contribution. In Fear Icons, the inaugural prize winner of the 21st Century Essays series from Ohio State University Press, Schlegel not only asks readers to examine their lives in the context of popular culture's connection to fear, but she also challenges her readers to see their own fears in relationship to the fears of others. "Who are we to each other when we're afraid?" is the central question of these essays. It is asked at the conclusion of the prologue entitled "Jesus?" which frames the narrator's early engagement with fear in a universally identifiable way. Schlegel uses the interrogative voice of the Sunday school child awakening to the obvious contradictions in God's omnipotence in conjunction with a much more adult "I" to create a vulnerability, as well as a psychic distance that allows for objective observation. This use of point of view not only gives Schlegel the carte blanche to ask difficult questions, but it also allows her to effectively contextualize and clarify this line of inquiry through even more specific and difficult examinations. For example, the thematic power of Schlegel's central question of who we are in relation to each other when facing our fears springs from the more specific question found only two lines earlier, "Why does one person's suffering make another feel safe?" Unlike our society's focus on the false flag of finding "solutions" to our fears, Schlegel is content with naming and questioning. Through this narrative construction readers are challenged with in the intersectionality between fear and belief on a personal level. However, Schlegel does not shy away from the idea of fear on a larger cultural scale. Throughout the collection, Schlegel uses a mix of reportage and personal narrative to contextualize her personal experiences with fear in relationship to more cultural iconography. Some of these icons are more directly related to fear (Osama Bin Laden) than others (Dolly Parton). However, by engaging with specific icons such as Dick Cheney, Ozzy Osbourne, Darth Vader, and Mother Mary, along with the iconic identity of objects or settings such as oil, guns, and the San Andreas Fault, Schlegel is able to move beyond the celebrity status of these icons in order to explore themes of nostalgia, motherhood, violence, suffering, political identity, aging, etc. For example, in the chapter entitled "San Adreas Fault," this iconic landscape provides a backdrop for a young couple grappling with the fears associated with parenting when they discover they are having another child. Schlegel writes, Down below, the fault line crushed rock and clay into flour. In time, that pressure would erupt into an earthquake with enough force and magnitude to knock us out of this life like loose baby teeth. But in that moment, it just squeezed water to the surface, make the oasis of Mara. This landscape, teeming with tension, allows readers to move beyond the more cliched fear responses to the narrator's situation and connect with these very human fears on a more universal level. Although...

The impact of psychic and geographical distance on internationalisation strategies: a study of New Zealand born global technology firms

The impact of psychic and geographical distance on internationalisation strategies: a study of New Zealand born global technology firms

Davide ReviatiSpit Three Times by Jamie Richards

blend and interrupt and juxtapose. “I want to start with the slippery, the intangible. I want to start with the impenetrable, the incomprehensible. I want to start with the world of dreams.” So the novel begins, aptly described by Azareen Van der Vliet Oloomi as “a haunting political cartography” of Tehran ’s missing people and art. One of the questions driving Missaghi’s novel is, Who has the right to tell the stories of the dead? Poignantly, searchingly, the narrator asks the reader to consider: “How can we trust? The witness, the exposure, the words, the documents, the evidence, the freedom?” The novel’s geography and exploration of place and memory are complex ; chapters and lists and imaginings are “imperfect interpretations / translations,” set between temporalities, histories, and locales—Denver, Tehran, the past and present —asking the reader to consider, “Can narratives tell stories the way bodies do?” The act of remembering and memorializing is simultaneously affirmed in a novel that refuses to look away from various complex realities in Tehran. In her 2017 essay published in Asymptote, Missaghi writes, “We, as writers and translators, cannot afford the luxury of separating ourselves from the sociopolitical contexts of our work and need to strive to continuously raise awareness —both our own and others’—about such contexts.” A novelist, translator, professor, and editor , Missaghi has taken a narrative approach that infuses her novel with this ethic. One of the ways the novel does so is through an aesthetic blurring of the author/narrator subject position by continually collapsing the psychic distance between them. “And, I ask (her, myself) whether anything can be accomplished without taking risks.” In the brief foreword, Missaghi writes, “Part of this work is based on true (hi)stories, but I make no claim about the factual accuracy of my trans(re)lations of its events, places, individuals , and peoples.” This narrative effect centers deftly and with sensitivity the sociopolitical contexts the work and its author explore while consistently reminding the reader of the subjective role of narrator as filter, as guide. At times, the novel reads like a lyric essay in this centering, as it searches memory, trauma, place, and (hi)stories for what is missing. “Without the questions, the book would become a manual and a postcard, a goddess posing for cameras, too pleased with her limbs and her arms, with her words and her voice.” Interwoven with such complex ethical questions about representational art in the face of state murder is a gorgeous story of two lovers who smoke on balconies, desire each other’s bodies. Formally braided, lyric and dense, the novel recalls Northwood , Maryse Meijer’s alchemical surreal account of pain and desire written in lineated language and spare single paragraphs that accumulate and swirl, of Alice Notley’s In the Pines, as well as José Revueltas’s The Hole and Willem Frederik Hermans’s An Untouched House. Missaghi’s narrator quotes Giorgio Agamben’s Remnants of Auschwitz: The Witness and the Archive: “In the Nazi camps, the tortured bodies could not be named as such. Under no circumstances were they to be called ‘corpses’ or ‘cadavers,’ but rather simply Figuren, figures, dolls.” Throughout the novel, there is a mounting list of corpses. How does the writing of witness tell the stories of the dead without objectifying their lives in the process? This question seems central to Missaghi’s formidable first novel, which centers a complex act of witness while also questioning the act of witnessing. It is a gorgeous and brave book, not to be missed. Kathryn Savage Tulsa, Oklahoma Davide Reviati Spit Three Times Trans. Jamie Richards. New York. Seven Stories Press. 2020. 568 pages. IT IS A RARE pleasure to find a graphic novel where energetic black-and-white drawings and simple but eloquent text are intertwined with such harmony, each enhancing the other. Of course, a driving narrative force is key here, and Davide Reviati’s Spit Three Times is a prime example of the melding of propulsive storytelling and a distinctive artist’s hand. The narrative begins with a group of adolescent boys in rural Italy and follows them backward and forward in time. Guido and Grisu are at the...

When brand scandal spills over brands from the same region of origin: moderating role of psychic distance

When brand scandal spills over brands from the same region of origin: moderating role of psychic distance

Impact of Cultural Dimensions to Individualism, and Collectivism Dimension

Globalization is growing and barriers seem to be dwindling. Therefore, trade barriers are eliminated, communication channels are simplifying business processes and the world appears to be shrinking to a village (Werlen, 2000, p. 23). The internalization of firms is a strategically planned result that has been motivated by major considerations, and one main factor for decision-making is the conception of psychic distance. Psychic distance is based on the cognitions of other cultures and influences the internationalization processes. Dow (2008, p. 1) revealed six main influencing factors: cultural differences, language, religion, level of education, industrial development and political system. Culture is a ambiguous construct and understanding how culture relates to psychological phenomena is essential to analyse the determining dimensions such as the individualism and collectivism dimension. There exists a broad vision of cultural dimensions and a controversial discussion is ongoing. The focus of these discussions is the differentiation between cultural values.

Consumers’ reactions to cross-border acquisitions

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to focus on consumers’ reactions to cross-border acquisitions (CBA) by exploring the role of consumer perceptions of the psychic distance between the country of the acquirer and that of the target firm when the acquiring corporation has a good or poor reputation.Design/methodology/approachA 2×2 experimental design which manipulated psychic distance and acquirer’s corporate reputation was conducted in Italy. The study considers an Italian food target firm and compares four foreign acquiring firms with different combinations of corporate reputation (good/poor) and psychic distance to Italy (small/large).FindingsThe authors found that the degree of psychic distance between the countries of the acquiring and targeted firms was inversely related to Italian consumers’ intentions to repurchase the products of the post-acquisition target, and unrelated to the acquirer’s corporate reputation.Originality/valueThis is the first study focusing on psychic distance in the context of CBA, especially from the perspective of consumer behavior, which can help to better understand certain negative reactions toward the acquisition of a business.

From the deliberate managerial strategy towards international business performance: A psychic distance vs. global mindset approach

AbstractThe current paper aims to address, within a comprehensive framework, two different facets of the internationalization strategies of small and medium‐sized enterprises, that is, the roles of psychic distance and global mindset within managerial dyadic collaborations. By considering cross‐border ventures as outcomes of deliberate managerial strategies in the quest for achieving international business performance, the study lays emphasis on several dimensions apposite to each of the two constructs, namely, geographic distance and intercultural compatibility for the psychic distance and trust‐based relationships and network‐based connectivity for the global mindset. A questionnaire‐based survey with top managers from 112 European industrial small and medium‐sized enterprises was conducted, the data being processed by means of a structural equation modelling technique. The findings showed that the structural model accounts for 63.9% of the variance in international business performance, whereas the dimensions of psychic distance exert significant positive influences on the endogenous variable.

Can differences be turned to positives? An empirical investigation of psychic distance, trust, and commitment in Malaysian exporters

Relationship development has become a critical dimension of international performance for exporters. Differences between markets have been proposed as determinants of relationship development. As a concept relating to those differences, psychic distance is an influential factor in relationship development, but the literature provides mix empirical evidence about its effects. We analyzed the impact of psychic distance on two central constructs of relationship: trust and commitment, in the context of Malaysia. Our survey results from Malaysian exporters indicate that psychic distance affects trust, but not commitment. More importantly, we found different results for dimensions of psychic distance. While cultural differences affect trust negatively, business-legal difference and differences in product adaptation have positive effects on trust. The reasons for and implications of these results, as well as new avenues for future research, are discussed.

Cross-national distance and international business: an analysis of the most influential recent models

Cross-national distance among countries has been of central interest in International Business and Management research. Therefore, different efforts have been made to develop models/measurements to address this issue. In this article we identify the models/measurements of cross-national distance developed since the beginning of the 2000 decade. After briefly presenting each model’s distinctive features, we assess their impact on the research field based on a wide range of bibliometric techniques (direct, indirect, and adjusted citation impacts, altmetrics, academic reviews, journals and publishers’ prestige). Our analysis shows that the narrower cultural distance construct has lost ground to the wider psychic distance one. Furthermore, researchers highly value those models and measurement that go beyond the cultural and psychic distance constructs providing a multidimensional framework to analyze and measure cross-national distance among countries. Our analysis of these models’ impact shows that this a salient issue in the research field as a whole and a central topic in the highest ranked journals in International Business and Management.

Venturing to Distant Markets - Polish Firms in Latin America

The objective of this paper is to shed light on the understudied phenomenon of expansion of Polish firms to distant markets. Authors ask the following questions: (1) What is the current state of internationalisation of Polish firms in Latin America, in both quantitative (i.e. value of exports and FDI) and qualitative terms (i.e. characteristics of key exporters and investors); (2) What are the main distance-related barriers to internationalisation of Polish firms in Latin America. In order to describe the scale, scope and characteristics of Polish exports and investments in Latin America, authors analyse publicly available information, macro-level data and micro-level data, collected from the press and finan- cial statements of Polish firms present in Latin America, combined with the information received from the Trade and Investment Promotion Sections of the Polish Embassies. In order to assess the distance between Poland and Latin America, thus indicating the major barriers to internationalisation of Polish firms in this region, the psychic distance measures elaborated by Hakanson and Ambos and the CAGE framework offered by Ghemawat are employed. This paper contributes to the discussion on whether the ‘go global’ strategy is viable for Polish firms and whether it should be supported by the State.

The Influence of Geographic and Psychic Distance on Online Hotel Ratings

This study examines the relationship between distance measures and a Portuguese data set consisting of 34,622 online hotel reviews extracted from Booking.com and TripAdvisor written in Portuguese, Spanish, and English. Based on the country of origin of each review author, a geographic and a psychic distance measure is calculated for Portugal. Data and text mining analysis provides additional insights into online hotel ratings. The authors confirm that online travelers’ evaluations are multifaceted constructs displaying varying patterns of rating behavior among the traveler base. By investigating the contemporary relevance of geographic and psychic distance, a key finding of this study is that travelers with less distance both in terms of psychic and geographic distance give a lower rating score than travelers with greater distance. The inclusion of psychic and geographic distance is advocated as a salient aspect for future researchers and for those practitioners who wish to enhance hotel product and service features.

Transnational board interlocks

PurposeWhile previous studies have focused on the role of directors in the formation of transnational interlocks, this paper argues that firm strategy can also influence the development of these relationships. The purpose of this paper is to shed light on the practice of transnational interlocks by extending board interlocks theory from the national to the transnational context, and exploring aspects that are unique to the transnational level.Design/methodology/approachBased on the experiences of four British firms, this paper develops a conceptual framework that integrates under-examined dimensions of this networking practice at the organizational level of analysis, specifically degree of internationalization (DOI) and psychic distance (PD).FindingsThe paper argues that firms will increasingly engage in transnational interlocks as internationalization intensifies, and that expansion into psychically distant countries may result in further engagement in these connections. Further, firms will tend to form transnational received interlocks at their early stages of internationalization, and transnational sent and neutral interlocks at later stages of this process. It identifies four categories of firms: locals, extenders, explorers and cosmopolitans.Practical implicationsDirectors can contribute to their firms’ success by interlocking with firms located in key foreign markets. Firms should also welcome directors with transnational board appointments to secure knowledge and resources overseas.Originality/valueThe manuscript contributes to our understanding of transnational interlocks by examining the independent and joint influence of the firm’s DOI and PD on the formation of such relationships.

Factors driving the location investment decision of South African MNEs: Senior executives’ perceptions

As trade barriers fell, South African enterprises faced new competition in their previously protected home market. With established markets becoming saturated, multinational enterprises (MNEs) steered towards emerging markets abroad. Geographically, South Africa is an intrinsic part of Africa, and psychic distance, defined as consisting of, inter alia, differences in language, culture and business practices, can disturb the flow of business between an enterprise and the world. Physical proximity to countries makes it easier for enterprises to understand the culture and business practices, and reduces the uncertainty and risk of the new market. Perceived distance into Africa and elsewhere is also influenced by the specific consumer attributes and behaviours. Enterprises perform best in foreign markets where consumer behaviour is most receptive to a company’s goods and services. The study empirically investigated perceptions of psychic distance and foreign consumer factors in FDI decision making by senior executives of South African MNEs. The findings suggest that psychic distance is relatively unimportant and foreign consumer factors relatively important in FDI decision making

The effects of learning orientation and marketing programme planning on export performance: Paradoxical moderating role of psychic distance

Despite extensive research on the effect of organisational learning processes on firm performance, how and when a propensity to learn influences the export performance of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) remains unclear. Using multiple-informant and time-lagged primary data from 242 SMEs in a sub-Saharan African market, this study examines the roles of marketing programme planning and host country psychic distance in linking export learning orientation to export performance. Findings from the study show that increases in both export learning orientation and marketing programme planning are associated with increases in export performance. In addition, the study finds that while increases in psychic distance weaken the effect of export learning orientation on export performance, it strengthens the effect of marketing programme planning on export performance. These findings draw attention to the idea that cognitive distance between home and host country markets may play a paradoxical role in explaining when organisational learning activities may help or hurt exporting SMEs.

Multilevel psychic distance and its impact on SME internationalization

We expand the conceptualization of psychic distance and use a multilevel framework by studying it as a founder’s psychic distance in the pre-entry phase of entering a specific foreign market, and the SMEs (firm) psychic distance in the post-entry phase of entering that specific foreign market. Based on qualitative research involving six SMEs’ with 18 internationalization events, we found that psychic distance at country and business levels causes difficulties for SMEs in the post-entry phase because of their lack of knowledge. Bridge-makers possessing knowledge about target markets help SMEs to overcome psychic distance challenges. Trust in the relationship with the bridge-maker is an important ingredient to gain knowledge that alleviates the SMEs’ psychic distance challenges. Finally, we go beyond country-business levels of psychic distance by showing that psychic distance also matters at bridge-maker level. This relates to their lack of knowledge about the target market and SMEs’ routines.

The internationalisation of service-sector SMEs in an emerging market

PurposeThis paper aims to explore the internationalisation of service-sector small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) from an emerging market, focussing on the entry modes, psychic distance, business network, internationalisation challenges and capabilities of business training and consultancy firms from Malaysia.Design/methodology/approachA multiple-case study approach is adopted, and 31 in-depth interviews were conducted with the top management and executives from eight business training and consultation (BT&C) firms in Malaysia. The Uppsala model is used for theoretical guidance to analyse the internationalisation of the firms.FindingsThe results suggest that psychic distance, business network and business capabilities influence the internationalisation of BT&C firms from Malaysia. However, the discussion of entry modes in the framework of service internationalisation does not accurately explain the internationalisation of the studied firms.Research limitations/implicationsThis study is a qualitative research based on the experiences of eight firms. The basis of this study is inadequate for scientific generalisation. Quantitative research should be conducted in the future to provide a statistical test and empirical results. This study is concerned with the emerging-market context. The study could be expanded to include more industries and other emerging markets in the future.Practical implicationsThis study explored the application of internationalisation theories to the BT&C industry in an emerging market, with particular emphasis on firms’ entry modes, psychic distance, business networks, international challenges and capabilities. This study also highlighted some of the key internationalisation challenges facing emerging market small- and medium-sized enterprises (EMSMEs), underlining the importance of business networks and capabilities.Social implicationsNevertheless, this study shares useful and practical discoveries concerning the internationalisation process of BT&C firms from the emerging market, focussing on entry modes, psychic distance, business network, the challenges faced and the required capabilities.Originality/valueThe study provides new insights into service internationalisation in SMEs from an emerging market. The application of internationalisation theories to the BT&C industry in an emerging market is analysed.