Psittacine Birds Research Articles

An outbreak of Sarcocystis calchasi encephalitis in multiple psittacine species within an enclosed zoological aviary

A total of 5 psittacine birds in an enclosed zoological exhibit, including 2 princess parrots and 3 cockatoos of 2 different species, developed severe central nervous system clinical signs over a 2-3-month period and died or were euthanized. Histologically, all birds had a lymphoplasmacytic and histiocytic encephalitis with intralesional protozoa consistent with a Sarcocystis species in addition to intramuscular tissue sarcocysts. By immunohistochemical staining, merozoites in brain and tissue cysts in muscle did not react with polyclonal antisera against Sarcocystis falcatula, Sarcocystis neurona, Toxoplasma gondii, and Neospora caninum, or with a monoclonal antibody to S. neurona. Transmission electron microscopy on sarcocyst tissue cyst walls from 2 birds was morphologically consistent with Sarcocystis calchasi. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and sequencing of partial 18S ribosomal RNA from muscle tissue cysts and brain schizonts from 3 birds was consistent with a clade containing S. calchasi and Sarcocystis columbae but could not distinguish these closely related Sarcocystis species. However, PCR amplification and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer 1 RNA segment in the brain from 2 birds and muscle from 2 birds specifically identified the isolates as S. calchasi. The current report documents that multiple psittacine species are susceptible intermediate hosts of S. calchasi, and that infection can cause encephalitis resulting in significant morbidity and mortality in psittacine aviaries.

Complete Blood Cell Count in Psittaciformes by Using High-Throughput Image Cytometry: A Pilot Study

The avian hemogram is usually performed in veterinary diagnostic laboratories by using manual cell counting techniques and differential counts determined by light microscopy. There is no standard automated technique for avian blood cell count and differentiation to date. These shortcomings in birds are primarily because erythrocytes and thrombocytes are nucleated, which precludes the use of automated analyzers programmed to perform mammal complete blood cell counts. In addition, there is no standard avian antibody panel, which would allow cell differentiation by immunophenotyping across all commonly seen bird species. We report an alternative hematologic approach for quantification and differentiation of avian blood cells by using high-throughput image cytometry on blood smears in psittacine bird species. A pilot study was designed with 70 blood smears of different psittacine bird species stained with a Wright-Giemsa stain. The slides were scanned at 0.23 microm/pixel. The open-source softwares CellProfiler and CellProfiler Analyst were used for analyzing and sorting each cell by image cytometry. A "pipeline" was constructed in the CellProfiler by using different modules to identify and export hundreds of measures per cell for shape, intensity, and texture. Rules for classifying the different blood cell phenotypes were then determined based on these measurements by iterative feedback and machine learning by using CellProfiler Analyst. Although this approach shows promises, avian Leukopet results could not be duplicated when using this technique as is. Further studies and more standardized prospective investigations may be needed to refine the "pipeline" strategy and the machine learning algorithm.

Antibody selection for immunocytochemical characterization of the male reproductive system in Psittaciformes

The success of breeding programs is limited by the sparse knowledge about endocrine regulation and biochemical reactions in the psittacine male tract. The immunocytochemical analysis of parrots' testicular tissues provides an insight into their reproductive system but is often hampered by the lack of reliable antibodies. In the present study, we tested a large panel of antibodies raised against steroid receptors, steroidogenic enzymes, relaxin peptides including their receptors, and proliferation markers on paraffin sections of testicular tissue from eight psittacine genera representing three continents. All investigated species displayed the tested markers in somatic and germ cells of testis and epididymis, even though cell distribution was partly heterogenous and in species-specific patterns. The 17β-hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase-2, 3β-hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase, and smooth muscle actin allowed the cross-species differentiation between active and nonactive gonads. The remaining steroidogenic enzymes, steroid receptors, relaxin peptides, and Ki67 proved to be suitable to define reproductive activity depending on the parrot species. Adapting immunocytochemical methods to different psittacines was successful, though various cellular expression patterns do not allow the transfer of results among different parrot species. However, the availability of a reliable repertory of sexual markers is important to examine reproductive biology of psittacine birds.

Comparison of Computed Tomographic Images of Birds Obtained With Sedation vs General Anesthesia

Computed tomography (CT) is an increasingly available and valuable imaging modality for the diagnosis of companion avian pets. Previously, CT studies of birds required general anesthesia with inhalant anesthetics. Owing to the risks associated with general anesthesia, the authors of this article investigated the effect of sedation on birds during a CT examination. In this study, 10 psittacine birds were imaged using a 40-slice helical CT scanner. Birds were sedated with midazolam and butorphanol and placed in a positioning device. Following the initial study, birds were removed from the device and placed under general anesthesia with isoflurane. A second study was then performed. Two radiologists, blinded to the identity of the birds and partially blinded to the conditions of the study, reviewed the images. Studies were evaluated using a questionnaire consisting of 18 questions. Each question was scored on a Likert scale. A Wilcoxon signed rank test compared scores of sedated and anesthetized birds. A significant difference (P = 0.05) between sedated and anesthetized studies was found for 2 of 18 (11.1%) questions for radiologist 1 and 1 of 18 (5.5%) questions for radiologist 2, with differences identified in the scleral ossicles and the femoral heads. Interrater agreement for all questions using a linearly weighted κ was 0.334 and 0.311 for sedated and anesthetized birds, respectively, indicating fair agreement. The interrater agreement, excluding the head and musculoskeletal system, was 0.381 for sedated animals, indicating fair agreement, and 0.404 for anesthetized birds, indicating moderate agreement. Based on our results, performing CT studies in birds with sedation is a viable alternative to studies performed under general anesthesia.

Prevalence of and risk factors associated with atherosclerosis in psittacine birds

To estimate the prevalence of clinically relevant atherosclerotic lesions in birds and identify epidemiological variables and illness types associated with development of atherosclerosis. Retrospective case-control study. Records of 7683 psittacine birds, including 525 with advanced atherosclerosis. 5 pathology centers provided databases and access to histopathology slides. Age and sex were collected for all birds of the Amazona, Ara, Cacatua, Nymphicus, and Psittacus genera. Databases were searched for atherosclerosis cases, and slides were reviewed for the presence of type IV through VI atherosclerotic lesions. Results were used to build several multiple logistic models to define the association between advanced atherosclerosis and age, sex, genus, illness type, and specific lesions. Prevalence was reported as a function of age, sex, and genus. In the first model including 7683 birds, age, female sex, and the genera Psittacus, Amazona, and Nymphicus were significantly associated with clinically relevant atherosclerosis detected via necropsy. Subsequent models of 1,050 cases revealed further associations with reproductive disease, hepatic disease, and myocardial fibrosis, controlling for age, sex, and genus. Age, female sex, and 3 genera appeared to be positively associated with the presence of advanced atherosclerotic lesions in psittacine birds. This information may be useful in clinical assessment of the cardiovascular system and patient management. Reproductive diseases were the only potentially modifiable risk factor identified and could be a target for prevention in captive psittacine birds.

Similaridade genética entre APEC e cepas de Escherichia coli isoladas de Guaruba guarouba em um estudo com psitacídeos hígidos de cativeiro

The role of psittacine birds as a reservoir of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) is not known but would be helpful in understanding the human – animal interface, since the enteric microbiota of these birds consists of Gram positive bacteria. The aim of this study was to identify the presence of APEC in feces of clinically healthy Guaruba guarouba. To do this, we isolated and analyzed E. coli from cloacal fecal samples taken from 87 psittacine birds from six zoologic parks, three commercial breeders and one conservation breeder. Of the 87 birds examined, 46 (52.87%) presented E. coli in feces. The presence of the following eight virulence genes was determined by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR): irp2, iucD, iss, vat, cvi/cva, tsh, astA, and papC, and 29 (63.04%) of 46 E. coli isolates tested were positive at least one of the eight genes studied. The frequency of virulence genes observed in isolates of E. coli were 32.6% (15/46) irp2, 26% (12/46) iucD, 19.5% iss (9/46), 17.4% vat (8/46), 17.4% cvi/cva (8/46), 8.7% tsh (4/46), 4.4% astA (2/46) and 0% papC (0/46). The isolates were grouped in 13 genotypic profiles according to virulence gene combinations, but only 2 isolates were classified as APEC, with the pattern iuc, iss, cvi/cva, irp + and iuc, iss, cvi/cva, irp, tsh, vat +. This study reveals the presence of APEC in clinically healthy captive G. guarouba, suggesting that these psittacine birds may act as reservoir for pathogenic microorganisms. Epidemiological studies are needed to determine the relevance of this species as a reservoir and the implications for conservation of endangered species G. guarouba.

Avian bornaviruses are widely distributed in canary birds (Serinus canaria f. domestica)

Avian bornavirus (ABV) was identified in 2008 as the causative agent of proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) in psittacine birds. In addition, ABV variants were detected in wild waterfowl and in a canary bird. PDD-like diseases were also reported in various other avian species, but it remains unknown whether ABV is involved. In this study we detected ABV in 12 of 30 tested canary bird flocks (40%), indicating a wide distribution of ABV in captive canary birds in Germany. Sequence analysis identified several distinct ABV genotypes which differ markedly from the genotypes present in psittacine birds. Some canaries naturally infected with ABV exhibited gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms which resembled PDD in psittacines, while others did not show signs of disease. Canaries experimentally inoculated with ABV developed infections of the brain and various other organs. The experimentally infected canaries transmitted the virus to sentinel birds kept in the same aviary, but did not show any clinical signs during a five month observation period. Embryonated eggs originating from ABV-infected hens contained ABV-specific RNA, but virus could not be re-isolated from embryonic tissue. These results indicate that ABV is widely distributed in canary birds and due to its association to clinical signs should be considered as a potential pathogen of this species.

CHLAMYDOPHILA PSITTACIINFECTIONS IN HYACINTH MACAWS (ANODORHYNCHUS HYACINTHINUS) CONFISCATED IN BRAZIL

The hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) is the largest species of psittacine birds. It is considered endangered and illegal trade is one of the main factors involved in its decline. In this study, 26 hyacinth macaws maintained under poor husbandry conditions and destined for the illegal trade were confiscated in São Paulo State, Brazil. These birds were evaluated for the presence of antibodies against Chlamydophila psittaci by complement fixation test and C. psittaci DNA by seminested polymerase chain reaction. Results showed that 65.4% of the macaws were positive for at least one test. Birds with subclinical infections can shed chlamydiae intermittently over long periods, contributing to the dissemination of the agent. Global trade is one of the most important drivers of disease emergence. The high percentage of positive samples in this study emphasizes the potential risk that the illegal trade of wild birds represents for both human and animal health.

ENTEROBACTERIAL DETECTION ANDESCHERICHIA COLIANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE IN PARROTS SEIZED FROM THE ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE

Enteric bacteria are considered important potential pathogens in avian clinical medicine, causing either primary or opportunistic infections. The aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency of enterobacteria in the intestinal microbiota of psittacine birds and to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility of the Escherichia coli isolates cultured. Fecal samples were collected from 300 parrots captured from the illegal wildlife trade in Goiás, Brazil and were processed using conventional bacteriological procedures. A total of 508 isolates were obtained from 300 fecal samples: 172 E. coli (33.9% of isolates; 57.3% of individuals); 153 Enterobacter spp. (30.1% of isolates; 51.0% of individuals); 89 Klebsiella spp. (17.7% of isolates; 29.7% of individuals); 59 Citrobacter spp. (11.6% of isolates; 19.7% of individuals), 21 Proteus vulgaris (4.2% of isolates; 7.0% of individuals), 5 Providencia alcalifaciens (0.98% of isolates; 1.67% of individuals), 5 Serratia sp. (0.98% of isolates; 1.67% of individuals), 3 Hafnia aivei (0.59% of isolates; 1.00% of individuals), and 1 Salmonella sp. (0.20% of isolates; 0.33% of individuals). Escherichia coli isolates were subsequently tested for susceptibility to the following antibiotics: amoxicillin (70.93% of the isolates were resistant), ampicillin (75.58%), ciprofloxacin (23.25%), chloramphenicol (33.14%), doxycycline (64.53%), enrofloxacin (41.28%), tetracycline (69.19%), and sulfonamide (71.51%). Multi-resistance to three and four groups of antibiotics occurred in 40 samples (23.25%) and 4 samples (2.32%), respectively. These results demonstrate that illegally traded birds are carriers of potentially pathogenic bacteria, including E. coli strains with antimicrobial resistance.

Antinociceptive effects of long-acting nalbuphine decanoate after intramuscular administration to Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis)

To evaluate the thermal antinociceptive effects and duration of action of nalbuphine decanoate after IM administration to Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). 10 healthy adult Hispaniolan Amazon parrots of unknown sex. Nalbuphine decanoate (33.7 mg/kg) or saline (0.9% NaCl) solution was administered IM in a randomized complete crossover experimental design (periods 1 and 2). Foot withdrawal threshold to a noxious thermal stimulus was used to evaluate responses. Baseline thermal withdrawal threshold was recorded 1 hour before drug or saline solution administration, and thermal foot withdrawal threshold measurements were repeated 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours after drug administration. Nalbuphine decanoate administered IM at a dose of 33.7 mg/kg significantly increased thermal foot withdrawal threshold, compared with results after administration of saline solution during period 2, and also caused a significant change in withdrawal threshold for up to 12 hours, compared with baseline values. Nalbuphine decanoate increased the foot withdrawal threshold to a noxious thermal stimulus in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots for up to 12 hours and provided a longer duration of action than has been reported for other nalbuphine formulations. Further studies with other types of nociceptive stimulation, dosages, and dosing intervals as well as clinical trials are needed to fully evaluate the analgesic effects of nalbuphine decanoate in psittacine birds.

Prevalence of Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease Virus and Avian Polyomavirus in Captivity Psittacines from Costa Rica

Psittacine beak and feather disease virus (PBFDV) and avian polyomavirus (APV) are the most common viral diseases in psittacine birds, both affecting feathers and physical appearance of birds. Between 2005 and 2009, a total of 269 samples were collected from birds presented at veterinary clinics, shelters and rescue centers of wildlife in Costa Rica. They belonged to 19 species of psittacine birds. The most representative species in the sample were Ara macao (157), Ara ambigua (37), Amazona autumnalis (24), Amazon ochrocephala (21) and Ara ararauna (8). A prevalence of 19.7% (53/269) for PBFDV and 4.8% (13/269) for APV was determined using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). In 3.3% (9/269) of the birds mixed infections were detected. Statistical analysis determined that psittacines living in shelters and rescue centers had a greater risk to be positive to PBFDV and APV than birds that were presented at veterinary clinics, while only for PBFDV it was determined, that it is more likely to detect it in feathers than in blood. Finally, birds infected with PBFDV had 6.24 times more probability to become infected with APV, than non-infected birds. This is the first report of prevalence of PBFDV and APV in captive psittacines from Costa Rica.

Molecular Detection and Genotyping ofChlamydia psittaciin Captive Psittacines from Costa Rica

Oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs from 117 captive psittacine birds presented at veterinary clinics (88) and from shelters/rescue centers of wildlife (29) were collected to determine the prevalence of C. psittaci in captive birds in Costa Rica. Samples were collected during 2009 from a total of 19 different species of parrots, with Ara macao (33), Amazona autumnalis (24), Amazona ochrocephala (21), and Ara ararauna (8) being the most representative species sampled. C. psittaci was detected in four (3.4%) birds using molecular detection (PCR). The positive samples belonged to birds presented at veterinary clinics; three of them were Ara macao and one Amazona ochrocephala. Three birds were adults; all positive birds showed no symptoms of illness and lived in homes with other birds, two in San José and two in Heredia. Sequencing was used to confirm the PCR positive results, showing that two samples of C. psittaci belonged to genotype A, representing the first report of the presence of this genotype in Costa Rica. The detection of this bacterium in captive psittacine birds shows that there is a potential risk for people living or having contact with them and that there is a possibility of infecting other birds.

Retention of transmitter attachments on black cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus spp.).

Despite the widespread use of telemetry to track the movements of many different avian species, there are few published studies describing tracking methods for large psittacine birds. Due to their powerful bills and inquisitive demeanours, large parrots may damage valuable transmitters and confound telemetry studies. We undertook a captive trial of three attachment methods (collar, harness and tail-mount) and a novel weak-link harness design for black cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus latirostris, C. baudinii and C. banksii naso). Mean retention times for the transmitter packages ranged from 44 to 384 days. There was no skin or feather damage to the birds associated with transmitter attachments. The results showed sufficient transmitter retention times to allow for the collection of valuable movement and survival data, with no obvious ill effects on animal welfare, and are a first step towards using transmitters on wild cockatoos.

PULMONARY ADENOCARCINOMA WITH OSSEOUS METASTASIS AND SECONDARY PARESIS IN A BLUE AND GOLD MACAW (ARA ARARAUNA)

A 16-yr-old female blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) was presented with an acute history of lethargy, inappetance, ataxia, and paralysis. The bird had rapidly progressed from a normal state to complete inability to perch or ambulate within a 48-hr period. Neurologic examination revealed bilateral hind limb paresis with upper motor neuron signs present in both legs and the vent. Radiographs identified multiple nodular soft-tissue opacities within the cranial coelomic cavity and a single nodule superimposed with the thoracic spine. The bird was euthanized and submitted for necropsy, which revealed a primary pulmonary adenocarcinoma with multiple sites of osseous metastasis, including the vertebrae, and subsequent spinal cord compression. This is the first report of pulmonary adenocarcinoma in this species, although reports of similar tumors in other psittacines have been published. This report, along with others previously published, suggests that vertebral metastasis of primary pulmonary tumors may be more common in psittacine species than previously recognized and, as such, should be considered as a differential diagnosis in psittacine birds exhibiting signs of neurologic dysfunction attributed to a spinal cord lesion.

Avian bornavirus genotype 4 recovered from naturally infected psittacine birds with proventricular dilatation disease in South Africa

The occurrence of proventricular dilatation disease caused by avian bornavirus (ABV) in captive psittacine birds has long been suspected in South Africa. This report documents the first detection by polymerase chain reaction and gene sequence analyses of ABV from three clinical cases of proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) in captive bred blue and gold macaws (Araara rauna) resident in this country. Lymphoplasmacytic encephalitis, gastrointestinal myenteric gangioneuritis and leiomyositis were the most prominent histopathological changes and ABV genotype 4 was detected in tissues from all three birds. Immunohistochemical stains for ABV antigen revealed positive labelling of neurons and glial cells of the brain, myenteric ganglia and nerve fibres as well as smooth muscle cells of the gastrointestinal tract of all three birds. In one bird, positive labelling of the peripheral nerves was observed. The identical sequence of the analaysed genome fragment of all three samples, history that all of these birds had originated from the same breeding facility, and young age at presentation raise the question of possible vertical transmission.

Measuring the Level of Agreement Between a Veterinary and a Human Point-of-Care Glucometer and a Laboratory Blood Analyzer in Hispaniolan Amazon Parrots (Amazona ventralis)

Although abnormalities in blood glucose concentrations in avian species are not as common as they are in mammals, the inability to provide point-of-care glucose measurement likely results in underreporting and missed treatment opportunities. A veterinary glucometer that uses different optimization codes for specific groups of animals has been produced. To obtain data for a psittacine bird-specific optimization code, as well as to calculate agreement between the veterinary glucometer, a standard human glucometer, and a laboratory analyzer, blood samples were obtained from 25 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis) in a 2-phase study. In the initial phase, blood samples were obtained from 20 parrots twice at a 2-week interval. For each sample, the packed cell volume was determined, and the blood glucose concentration was measured by the veterinary glucometer. The rest of each sample was placed into a lithium heparin microtainer tube and centrifuged, and plasma was removed and frozen at -30 degrees C. Within 5 days, tubes were thawed, and blood glucose concentrations were measured with a laboratory analyzer. The data from both procedures were used to develop a psittacine bird-specific code. For the second phase of the study, the same procedure was repeated twice at a 2-week interval in 25 birds to determine agreement between the veterinary glucometer, a standard human glucometer, and a laboratory analyzer. Neither glucometer was in good agreement with the laboratory analyzer (veterinary glucometer bias, 9.0; level of agreement, -38.1 to 56.2; standard glucometer bias, 69.4; level of agreement -17.8 to 156.7). Based on these results, the use of handheld glucometers in the diagnostic testing of Hispaniolan Amazon parrots and other psittacine birds cannot be recommended.

Positive Reinforcement Training Facilitates the Voluntary Participation of Laboratory Macaws With Veterinary Procedures

Psittacine birds are challenging laboratory subjects, as they are typically long-lived, very social, highly intelligent, and easily stressed. The benefits of positive reinforcement techniques in animal management have been well documented for mammalian species; however, there are few publications on such programs for birds. To demonstrate the practicality of positive reinforcement training of laboratory birds to cooperate with research procedures involving direct manipulation of individuals, 9 adult macaws (Ara species; 5 individuals and 2 pairs) were trained in 10-minute sessions, twice a day for 8 weeks. The trained behaviors were: target, stay, accept liquids from a syringe, step onto a perch, step onto a scale, allow pressing a syringe to the pectoral area (surrogate for an intramuscular injection), and step onto a towel. All individually housed birds reliably targeted, stayed, and accepted a syringe, and 4 of the 5 stepped onto a perch. One bird performed all of the behaviors. Paired birds learned advanced techniques significantly faster when trained by 2 trainers versus 1 trainer. All behaviors that were mastered during the initial phase of training were successfully transferred so that the birds would reliably perform for the husbandry staff. We conclude that positive reinforcement techniques provide an effective, practical way to train laboratory macaws in behaviors useful for veterinary practice and research. Positive reinforcement used to evoke voluntary participation in procedures will help reduce stress associated with capture and restraint and improve welfare for laboratory parrots.

Relatedness between Host Species and Genotype of Beak and Feather Disease Virus Suggesting Possible Interspecies Cross Infection during Bird Trade

Beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) is a causative agent of psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD), which shows a characteristic feather disorder in psittacine birds. In the present study, the subclinical infection rate of PBFD in imported and domestically bred psittacine birds was investigated by polymerase chain reaction. As a result, 126 of 402 birds (31.3%) were found to be BFDV positive. The DNA sequences of the part of open reading frame (ORF) C1 were determined for 16 BFDV-positive randomly selected samples. One of 16 samples was found to have a mixed infection, and 5 different BFDV sequences were obtained from a single African grey parrot. In phylogenic analysis, almost BFDV sequences included in each genetic cluster of phylogenic tree belonged to the same psittacine subfamily. BFDV derived from African grey parrot was closely related to the BFDV derived from cockatoos by way of exception. The natural habitat of the African grey parrot and cockatoos is different, and therefore, the possibility of interspecies cross infection through the bird trade is suggested from the exceptional BFDV sequences.

Evaluation of a novel feather scoring system for monitoring feather damaging behaviour in parrots

Feather damaging behaviour is common in captive psittacine birds and there is a need for reliable methods to evaluate the efficacy of therapeutic and preventive interventions. This study compared the inter- and intra-observer reliabilities of a novel feather scoring system with an existing system to assess the plumage of grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). Regions of the body were photographed separately at 1week intervals and shown at random to 35 examiners (avian veterinarians and veterinary students), who used the two scoring systems to assess plumage. Since the quality of the photographs was insufficient to allow accurate assessment of the individual flight and tail feathers, the novel scoring system was only evaluated for its reliability regarding covert and down feathers. Inter- and intra-observer reliabilities were determined using the intra-class correlation coefficient. Bland–Altman analysis was performed to determine absolute reliabilities for both systems.Correlation coefficients were 0.90 and 0.95 for intra-observer reliability and 0.83 and 0.89 for inter-observer reliability for the existing and novel feather scoring systems, respectively. When using the novel system, a change in plumage condition of ⩾10% was needed to ensure that the change reflected a real difference in 95% of cases, while a change of ⩾15% was needed for the existing system. Since it may take from 4weeks (covert or down feathers) to over 1year (flight or tail feathers) for feathers to regrow, sufficient time should be allowed to elapse between two scoring sessions to reliably evaluate the efficacy of preventive or therapeutic interventions for feather damaging behaviour.

Zoonotic atypical pneumonia due to Chlamydophila psittaci: First reported psittacosis case in Taiwan

Human psittacosis caused by Chlamydophila psittaci is one of the most common zoonotic atypical pneumonias featuring pulmonary as well as extrapulmonary infections. Most of the cases involve avian contact history especially with psittacine birds. Herein we report a 44-year-old male patient displaying atypical pneumonia symptoms of intermittent fever, dry cough, chest pain, dyspnea, headache, hepatitis, and hyponatremia. He had two sick cockatiels, one of which had died a month previously. A microimmunofluorescence test was performed to check the serum antibody levels against Chlamydophila psittaci. The serum IgM titer showed positive titer of 1:256, 1:256, and 1:128 on Days 11, 23, and 43 after disease onset, respectively. His fever subsided soon and clinical symptoms improved after minocycline was administrated on Day 12. The psittacosis case was confirmed by history of psittacine bird contact, clinical symptoms, treatment response, and positive IgM titer. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a psittacosis case in Taiwan.