Blue Sheep Research Articles

First camera-trap record of the snow leopard Panthera uncia in Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Nepal

AbstractThe snow leopard Panthera uncia is the flagship species of the high mountains of the Himalayas. There is potentially continuous habitat for the snow leopard along the northern border of Nepal, but there is a gap in information about the snow leopard in Gaurishankar Conservation Area. Previous spatial analysis has suggested that the Lamabagar area in this Conservation Area could serve as a transboundary corridor for snow leopards, and that the area may connect local populations, creating a metapopulation. However, there has been no visual confirmation of the species in Lamabagar. We set 11 infrared camera traps for 7 months in Lapchi Village of Gaurishankar Conservation Area, where blue sheep Pseudois nayaur, musk deer Moschus leucogaster and Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus, all snow leopard prey species, had been observed. In November 2018 at 4,100 m, 5 km south-west of Lapchi Village, one camera recorded three images of a snow leopard, the first photographic evidence of the species in the Conservation Area. Sixteen other species of mammals were also recorded. Camera-trap records and sightings indicated a high abundance of Himalayan tahr, blue sheep and musk deer. Lapchi Village may be a potentially important corridor for snow leopard movement between the east and west of Nepal and northwards to Quomolongma National Park in China. However, plans for development in the region present increasing threats to this corridor. We recommend development of a transboundary conservation strategy for snow leopard conservation in this region, with participation of Nepal, China and international agencies.

Relative influence of wild prey and livestock abundance on carnivore-caused livestock predation.

Conservation conflict over livestock depredation is one of the key drivers of large mammalian carnivore declines worldwide. Mitigating this conflict requires strategies informed by reliable knowledge of factors influencing livestock depredation. Wild prey and livestock abundance are critical factors influencing the extent of livestock depredation. We compared whether the extent of livestock predation by snow leopards Panthera uncia differed in relation to densities of wild prey, livestock, and snow leopards at two sites in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal. We used camera trap‐based spatially explicit capture–recapture models to estimate snow leopard density; double‐observer surveys to estimate the density of their main prey species, the blue sheep Pseudois nayaur; and interview‐based household surveys to estimate livestock population and number of livestock killed by snow leopards. The proportion of livestock lost per household was seven times higher in Upper Dolpa, the site which had higher snow leopard density (2.51 snow leopards per 100 km2) and higher livestock density (17.21 livestock per km2) compared to Lower Dolpa (1.21 snow leopards per 100 km2; 4.5 livestock per km2). The wild prey density was similar across the two sites (1.81 and 1.57 animals per km2 in Upper and Lower Dolpa, respectively). Our results suggest that livestock depredation level may largely be determined by the abundances of the snow leopards and livestock and predation levels on livestock can vary even at similar levels of wild prey density. In large parts of the snow leopard range, livestock production is indispensable to local livelihoods and livestock population is expected to increase to meet the demand of cashmere. Hence, we recommend that any efforts to increase livestock populations or conservation initiatives aimed at recovering or increasing snow leopard population be accompanied by better herding practices (e.g., predator‐proof corrals) to protect livestock from snow leopard.

Understanding the public debate about trophy hunting in China as a rural development mechanism

AbstractThe use of trophy hunting as a wildlife management option has been a highly controversial topic, especially in southern Africa, but trophy hunting has historically also taken place also throughout Asia. In China, trophy hunting was the topic of intense public discussion more than a decade ago, leading ultimately to the suspension of this practice in 2006. Yet, this debate was dominated by urban voices, with no formal consultation of rural populations from minorities such as the Tibetan herders who previously benefited financially from commercial trophy hunting acting as guides and who are also concerned about the negative impact of rising blue sheep numbers on livestock grazing. We used a discrete choice experiment econometric method to better understand the trade‐offs made by both urban and rural populations across China in relation trophy hunting as a rural development and wildlife management tool. We find that trophy hunting is supported by the majority of rural residents but opposed by most urban residents, although there is heterogeneity within both these groups. We recommend that policy‐making in this realm should be informed by a better understanding of the preferences of different stakeholders, including the local people who bear the costs of living with wildlife.

Seasonal Variation and Sexual Dimorphism of the Microbiota in Wild Blue Sheep (Pseudois nayaur).

Microbiota of the wild blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) presents a seasonal variation due to different dietary selection and feeding strategies from different ecological niches chosen by different sex in summer. To address those issues, we analyzed the variation of gut microbiota based on the material from the feces, with 16S rRNA and meta-genome aimed to explore seasonal and gender differences. The results indicate that seasonal dietary changes and gender differentiation, as expected, cause the variation in sheep’s gut microbiota structure. The variation of the former is more significant than the latter. Dominant Firmicutes exists a significantly higher abundance in summer than that in winter. Subordinate Bacteroides expresses no seasonal difference between the two seasons. Compared with the winter group, the summer group is featured by abundant enzymes digesting cellulose and generating short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as beta-glucosidase (EC: 3.2.1.21) for cellulose digestion, and butyrate kinase (EC:2.7.2.7) in butyrate metabolism, implying that the changes of the composition in intestinal flora allow the sheep to adapt to the seasonalized dietary selection through alternated microbial functions to reach the goal of facilitating the efficiency of energy harvesting. The results also show that the blue sheep expresses a prominent sexual dimorphism in the components of gut microbiota, indicating that the two sexes have different adaptations to the dietary selection, and demands for physical and psychological purposes. Thus, this study provides an example of demonstrating the principles and regulations of natural selection and environmental adaptation.

Morphological and metric criteria for identifying postcranial skeletal remains of modern and archaeological Caprinae and Antilopinae in the northeast Tibetan Plateau and adjacent areas

AbstractOsseous remains of medium‐sized Caprinae and Antilopinae are often found in late Quaternary archaeological sites in the northeast Tibetan Plateau and adjacent areas, but their accurate taxonomic identification poses considerable problems to zooarchaeologists. Building on previous osteomorphological studies and a statistically significant number of modern comparatives, this study presents diagnostic morphological features and metric data of selected skeletal elements, enabling taxonomic classification of six medium‐sized wild bovid genera widely distributed across the region, that is, Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Argali (Ovis ammon), Serow (Capricornis sp.), Goral (Naemorhedus sp.) and two genera of Antilopinae (Gazella, Procapra), as well as domestic sheep (O. aries) and goats (Capra hircus). A blind test showed that using these anatomical criteria on modern specimens allowed separating unequivocally all taxa in the case of the distal humerus, but a lesser degree of confidence in the case of the distal metapodials. Applying these criteria to archaeological specimens from the prehistoric northeast Tibetan Plateau, we conclude that distal humeri can be confidently assigned taxonomically by applying a stepwise approach, whereas in distal metacarpals and metatarsals, the probabilistic approach is proving more promising for classifying specimens correctly.

Biodiversity conservation in the Hindu Kush-Karakoram-Himalayan mountain region of northern Pakistan: Overview of big mammal protection

The high mountains of northern Pakistan comprise the western section of the Hindu Kush-Karakoram-Himalayas (HKH) region of South and Central Asia. They are home to some rare and endangered species of fauna and flora which form an important link in the biodiversity of the region as a whole. Increasing population and changing life styles in recent decades have brought unprecedented pressures on the biodiversity of this region. Along with the government, the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and communities have a crucial role to play in conserving biodiversity. In this regard, a number of undertakings to protect depleting species have been initiated by governmental and non-governmental entities. These efforts are commendable and some have produced positive results, but many exist on a small scale and, with a few exceptions, are not self-sustaining. This paper reports on some of these initiatives of conserving big mammal species like the Astor markhor, Blue sheep, Himalayan brown bear, Himalayan ibex and Snow leopard, with the aim of collating and highlighting them, identifying gaps in conservation and suggesting a way forward so as to promote conservation projects on a larger and more sustainable basis.

The Passive Contact Stability of Blue Sheep Hoof Based on Structure, Mechanical Properties, and Surface Morphology.

As the only component that contacts the ground and rock, the hooves of blue sheep may play a crucial role in their excellent climbing abilities. In this study, we used a combination of techniques, including scanning electron microscopy, infrared spectroscopy and nanoindentation, to characterize the surface morphology, structure, material composition, and mechanical properties of blue sheep hoof and investigate the potential contributions of these properties to the establishment of passive contact stability. Straight and curled microscopic lamellar morphology were found on the hoof surfaces. The cross section of the hoof revealed four layers, and each layer had a unique structure. Finite element analysis was employed to verify that the surface morphology and microstructure effectively contributed to the slip resistance and impact cushioning, respectively. Analyses of the energy and infrared spectra showed that the organic and inorganic substances in different regions of the hoof had similar components but different contents of those components. The hoof was mainly composed of keratin. From the outside to the inside, gradients in both the modulus and hardness were observed. These factors help the hoof alleviate high impact strengths and increase contact stability. These findings further our understanding of the unique mechanism of blue sheep hoof and may help in the development of novel biomimetic materials and mechanical components with enhanced friction and contact stability properties.

Taxonomic status of Chinese blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur): new evidence of a distinct subspecies.

The blue sheep is an endemic species to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and surrounding regions. It has been regarded as having 2 subspecies: Pseudois nayaur nayaur and P. n. szechuanensis. However, such a classification remains controversial. Herein, we analyze 10 microsatellite loci and part of the mitochondrial control region for clarification in such taxonomic debates. We use samples from 168 individuals from 6 geographic populations covering almost all the distribution areas of the species in China to carry out comparisons. Phylogenetic trees derived from both the microsatellite and mitochondrial markers combined with the discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) and the STRUCTURE analysis reveal that the individuals in the Helan Mountains are well grouped with a distinct evolutionary lineage and are significantly different from the other populations of P. n. szechuanensis according to Fst values, implying that this isolated population should be categorized as a valid subspecies; namely, Pseudois nayaur alashanicus. The isolation-by-distance (IBD) analysis shows a significant positive relationship between genetic and geographical distances among the populations.

Blue Sheep Resource Selection in Alpine Grasslands of a Western Himalayan Landscape - A Point Process Approach.

In-depth knowledge of distribution and factors influencing it is important for species conservation and management. Many forms of such data have led to the development of new analytical techniques for better interpretation. For mountainous terrains with certain limitations, species data are obtained in the presence-only form. The point process model is one of the recent approaches for modelling such data, taking care of pseudo-absences and spatial independence. For conservation in regions with limited resources and species with similar ecological requirements, it is important to properly assess the extent of competition extent between wild and domestic species. We attempted to use point process framework to estimate the function of resource selection in blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) in areas influenced by pastoralism in a western Himalayan region. Our study is the first attempt to use this framework to estimate resource selection on a dataset not collected using radio-telemetry. Spatial locations of blue sheep and livestock and a background sample of random points with six topographic covariates were used to model resource selection probability via intensity function. Blue sheep showed its predicted presence in areas with open vegetation coinciding with alpine meadows, influenced by southern aspect keeping a threshold distance of 600-1000 m from cliffs (escape terrain). Livestock, also showed presence probability in open vegetation, but at lower altitudes, mainly on valley floors. Our results suggest that though blue sheep continued to use the same habitat type after livestock arrival, they selected different resources based on topographic factors. Livestock were in areas where it was convenient for pastoralists to establish campsites and where nutritious grasses were present, making it feasible to graze. Thus, we argue that the probable shift in habitat for blue sheep from optimal areas occurs due to livestock presence, which might disturb their nutritional balance. Our study provides helpful insights for managing rangelands, which when tied with dietary patterns will give a better idea for proper conservation measures in the future.

Issues and Opportunities Associated with Trophy Hunting and Tourism in Khunjerab National Park, Northern Pakistan.

Simple SummaryTrophy hunting and mass tourism were introduced to Khunjerab National Park, northern Pakistan to generate income for the community and help conserve and sustain the ecosystem in the region. These initiatives have provided economic benefits, but only at the cost of other environmental problems, as both trophy hunting and mass tourism have resulted in various ecological issues. Trophy hunting has not been based on scientific population data and has thus not helped increase numbers of wild ungulates or wild carnivores. Although mass tourism has increased enormously in this region, it has damaged the ecosystem through pollution generation and negatively impacted wildlife. We suggest that trophy hunting should be stopped, and mass tourism should be shifted to ecotourism as a sustainable solution to help improve the ecosystem, while generating income for the local community. Further studies are required to investigate ecotourism as a potential mitigation measure for the conservation issues in this region.Trophy hunting and mass tourism are the two major interventions designed to provide various socioeconomic and ecological benefits at the local and regional levels. However, these interventions have raised some serious concerns that need to be addressed. This study was conducted in Khunjerab National Park (KNP) with an aim to analyze comparatively the socioeconomic and ecological impacts of trophy hunting and mass tourism over the last three decades within the context of sustainability. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with key stakeholders and household interviews were conducted to collect data on trophy hunting and mass tourism, and on local attitudes towards these two interventions in and around KNP. The results revealed that 170 Ibex (Capra sibirica) and 12 Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) were hunted in the study area over the past three decades, and trophy hunting was not based on a sustainable harvest level. Trophy hunting on average generated USD 16,272 annual revenue, which was invested in community development. However, trophy hunting has greatly changed the attitudes of local residents towards wildlife: a positive attitude towards the wild ungulates and strongly negative attitude towards wild carnivores. In addition, trophy hunting has reduced the availability of ungulate prey species for Snow leopards (Panthera uncia), and consequently, Snow leopards have increased their predation on domestic livestock. This has, in turn, increased human–snow leopard conflict, as negative attitudes towards carnivores result in retaliatory killing of Snow leopards. Furthermore, according to official record data, the number of tourists to KNP has increased tremendously by 10,437.8%, from 1382 in 1999 to 145,633 in 2018. Mass tourism on average generated USD 33,904 annually and provided opportunities for locals to earn high incomes, but it caused damages to the environment and ecosystem in KNP through pollution generation and negative impacts on wildlife. Considering the limited benefits and significant problems created by trophy hunting and mass tourism, we suggest trophy hunting should be stopped and mass tourism should be shifted to ecotourism in and around KNP. Ecotourism could mitigate human–Snow leopard conflicts and help conserve the fragile ecosystem, while generating enough revenue incentives for the community to protect biodiversity and compensate for livestock depredation losses to Snow leopards. Our results may have implications for management of trophy hunting and mass tourism in other similar regions that deserve further investigation.

Tiger reappearance in Bhutan’s Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary: a case for maintaining effective corridors and metapopulations

The tiger Panthera tigris is globally ‘Endangered’ (Goodrich et al., 2015). The Himalayan Kingdom of Bhutan is an important stronghold (Tempa et al., 2019) for this ecologically and economically important apex predator (Estes et al., 2011; Thinley et al., 2018). Here, we report the reappearance of the tiger in Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary (BWS) in north-eastern Bhutan (Fig. 1a), after a likely absence of 12 years. Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary is bordered by China in the north and India in the east, and covers 1520 km2 across the districts of Trashiyangtse, Mongar and Lhuentse (Fig. 1a). Altitudes range from 1500 to 6450 m above sea level and the sanctuary contains 745, 42 and 334 species of plants, mammals and birds, respectively (BWS, 2013). Other large predators present in the sanctuary include the snow leopard P. uncia, common leopard P. pardus and dhole Cuon alpinus. They subsist on a diverse ungulate community comprising sambar Rusa unicolor, muntjac Muntiacus muntjac, blue sheep Pseudois nayaur, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, serow Capricornis thar and goral Naemorhedus goral. There are approximately 800 people who are resident in BWS, predominantly living as subsistence agro-pastoralists (BWS, 2013). Evidence of tiger presence in BWS was initially based on an anecdotal sighting at Thiling village in Sherimuhung Geog in 2001 (subdistrict; Fig. 1b); a claim of 12 yaks predated by tiger between 2003 and 2004 at Rongmateng village in Khoma Geog (Fig. 1b); and sanctuary personnel documenting tiger pugmarks in 2004 at Dongla within Yangtse Geog (Fig. 1b). However, camera trapping in BWS after 2004, including a comprehensive National Tiger Survey (NTS) from 2014 to 2015, failed to capture any tiger images (Thinley et al., 2015). This absence of sightings puzzled local tiger biologists, given the historic presence of tigers in the area, adequate prey availability, minimal hunting and no tiger poaching. Dissatisfied by the poor camera trapping results, sanctuary staff intensified field surveys in 2016 and a tiger pugmark was detected above Rigsumgeonpa monastery in Bumdeling Geog (Fig. 1b). Concurrently, three horses and eight sheep were depredated at Tsango village in Khoma Geog, allegedly by a tiger. Subsequent camera trapping at these livestock predation sites captured 22 tiger images (Fig. 2a,c), confirming at least one individual’s presence within BWS. Opportunistic camera trapping exercises in 2017 yielded nine tiger images (Fig. 2d) near Pangliwog village in Bumdeling Geog, and five images in Sherimuhung Geog. A 2018–2019 study of wildlife in water catchments in BWS and its environs yielded further three tiger images (Fig. 2e) above Gangkardung village in Bumdeling Geog within BWS, and 11 images (Fig. 2b) outside BWS and above Bayling and Bimkhar villages in Yangtse Geog. Analysis of all 50 images revealed a single male tiger, which did not match any of the 68 individual tigers identified in the NTS. This animal could have been an irregular transient not detected in pre-2016 camera trapping, but now resident at BWS. It is unlikely to have ranged from China or India given the functional extinction of the tiger in China (Qin et al., 2015), and no existing tiger records in India adjacent to BWS, due to rampant poaching (Passang Dorji, Forest Ranger, Trashiyangtse Range, Pers. Comm.). The male tiger in BWS is more likely to have originated from populations (Tempa et al., 2019) in either Wangchuck Centennial National Park via Corridor 8, or from Phrumsengla National Park via Corridor 7 (Fig. 1a). The reappearance of the tiger in BWS showcases the effective functionality of Bhutan’s biological corridors. Ensuring this and other tigers’ future survival in BWS entails regular anti-poaching patrols and camera trap monitoring; compensation or insurance programs to offset tiger-related livestock depredation; and designation of a corridor connecting BWS to Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary (SWS; Fig. 1a). SWS is also linked to Jhomotshangkha Wildlife Sanctuary (JWS; Fig. 1a); both sanctuaries recorded tigers during the NTS, potentially harboring important metapopulations. Radio-collaring of tigers in BWS, SWS and JWS will substantiate ecological research on these metapopulations and confirm the functionality of associated corridors.

Biodiversity conservation initiative in Nepal

The study aims to assess the biodiversity conservation initiative in Nepal. The focus group discussion, score ranking, key informant interview, field observation methods were used to collect the information from the study areas. The study focused on Terai Arc landscape, National Conservation Areas and Sacred Himalayan Landscape of Nepal. In the areas around 5000 ha forests have been restored in different critical corridors and 1085 ha grassland had been managed across TAL which has supported in improving quality habitat for Tiger, its prey based species and other wildlife species. The overwhelming majority of the respondents (98.63%) have found happy with the programs because the improvement of sustainable livelihoods of the poor people, conservation of species and ecosystem conservation, sustainable forest management, alternative energy and conservation education and capacity building of women, men, youths, ethnic groups and conflict affected people. There has been increased species population like tiger, rhino, snow leopard, blue sheep etc; increased community stewardship, habitat restoration and livelihood enhancement. The program launched with government and civil society organizations that lead to sustainability of the program. There have been faced challenges in order to wildlife conservation that include human-wildlife conflict, limited resources, transboundary movement and wildlife trade etc.

Jordanian EFL Students Use of English Color Terms in Collocations

The present study addresses a significant but neglected aspect of vocabulary teaching in general and teaching collocations, in particular, which is color term collocations. A significant number of idioms involve use color terms such as blue blood, black death, red tape, black sheep, and yellow press that are significant to study in the context of foreign language teaching. This study dealt with teaching color term collocations that are essence of language teaching/learning and translation. A multiple-choice test was used as the main instrument of this study. The sample of the study consisted of 94 Jordanian EFL students. Results obtained from the study showed that students’ performance in the test was weak. Moreover, the statements that had the black color terms were the most successfully addressed ones while the least correctly tackled ones were those related to the yellow color term. The data also showed that neither the students' gender nor their academic degree level had significantly affected their performance in the test. The study also revealed that the teaching of this component of vocabulary teaching was much neglected, which could be due to students’ insufficient knowledge regarding this respect in learning English as a foreign language

Population density of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in the Yage Valley Region of the Sanjiangyuan National Park: Conservation implications and future directions

ABSTRACT Population-based studies on snow leopard (Panthera uncia) are of theoretical and practical significance for the conservation of alpine ecosystems, though geographic remoteness and isolation hinder surveys in many promising regions. The Sanjiangyuan National Park on the Tibetan Plateau is acknowledged as a main snow leopard habitat, but most of the region remains unexplored and unknown. We adopted a combined approach of route survey and camera trapping survey to explore the population density of snow leopard in the Yage Valley region of the Sanjiangyuan National Park. Results indicated that (1) large populations of blue sheep contributed to the major food supply for snow leopards, along with diverse prey species as dietary supplementations, and (2) a population density of four to six snow leopards per 100 km2 on the north bank was estimated, and nine to fourteen individuals within the valley core areas were identified. We also argue that under the potential impacts of hydropower dams, this valley ecosystem should be symbolized as a conservation hotspot and therefore merits prioritized conservation. We recommend further surveys combined with novel methods/techniques and advocate a sustainable ecotourism model for the first V-shaped valley along the Yangtze mainstream.

Himalayan wolf foraging ecology and the importance of wild prey

Carnivore predation on livestock and game species leads to human-carnivore conflict. Thus, understanding the foraging ecology of threatened carnivores is important for conservation planning. We explore the summer diet of the Himalayan wolf, and of sympatric carnivores, based on the analysis of 257 field collected and genetically confirmed scat samples collected across three study areas in the Himalayas of Nepal (Humla, Dolpa, and Kanchenjunga Conservation Area) and two study areas on the Tibetan Plateau of China (Zhaqing and Namsai Township). We compared the prey species consumed to the relative availability of wild and domestic prey species. Himalayan wolves tend to select wild over domestic prey, smaller (e.g. Tibetan gazelle, Procapra picticaudata) over larger sized wild ungulates (e.g. White-lipped deer, Cervus albirostris), and plains-dwelling (Tibetan gazelle) over cliff-dwelling ungulates (naur, Pseudois nayaur). Tibetan gazelle was consistently selected for by the Himalayan wolf and smaller mammals such as Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana), woolly hare (Lepus oiostolus) and pikas (Ochotona spp.) are important supplementary food resources. Himalayan wolves avoided livestock which showed a seasonal high abundance, that exceeded many-fold the abundance of wild prey species during the summer study period. Given this seasonally high livestock abundance, depredation by Himalayan wolves is inevitable and a major conservation concern. Habitat encroachment and depletion of wild prey populations are important drivers of this conflict. But we found that livestock was avoided when wild prey was available, a finding that can direct conservation. We conclude that the protection of Himalayan wolves, and other sympatric carnivores can be enhanced by a) securing healthy wild prey populations (ungulates and small mammals) through setting aside wildlife habitat refuges, and b) more sustainable livestock herding including reduced livestock loads and improved herding practices and protection.

Human-snow leopard conflict in the Chang Tang region of Tibet, China

In April 2006, the authors conducted a preliminary human-wildlife conflict survey of 300 livestock herders in Shainza, Nyima, and Tsonyi Counties in northern Tibet's sparsely-populated Chang Tang region. This survey revealed a widespread but previously undocumented problem of snow leopard predation on livestock. In June and July 2007, an exploratory human-snow leopard conflict survey of 234 herders in the above counties found that 65.8% of respondents had experienced conflict with snow leopards in the form of livestock kills, with 77.3% of the most recent incidents occurring in the previous five years. These incidents were concentrated in winter and spring and a surprising 39.6% of incidents occurred during the day, often with herders present. Fifteen exploratory snow leopard sign transects totaling 14.85 km were conducted. Abundant snow leopard scrapes as well as pug marks were found, confirming the presence of these secretive cats. A total of 521 blue sheep were counted on and off sign transects indicating widespread availability of wild snow leopard prey. The recent surge in reported snow leopard conflict is likely due to increasing human and livestock populations, establishment of two multiple-use nature reserves accompanied by improved enforcement of wildlife protection laws, and a regional gun and trap ban launched in 2001. However, retaliatory killing of snow leopards in the survey area continues to be a potential threat. Therefore, measures are needed to reduce livestock kills by snow leopards, including corral improvements, improved guarding, establishment of livestock compensation schemes, and educating herders about snow leopard behavior.

Comparative Analyses of Fecal Microbiota in European Mouflon (Ovis orientalis musimon) and Blue Sheep (Pseudois nayaur) Living at Low or High Altitudes.

The gut microbiota is a complex and essential system organ that plays an integrative role in balancing key vital functions in the host. Knowledge of the impact of altitude on the gut microbiota of European mouflon (Ovis orientalis musimon) and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) is currently limited. In this study, we compared the characteristics of gut microbiota in 5 mouflon at low altitude (K group), 4 mouflon at high altitude (L group), 4 blue sheep at low altitude (M group), and 4 blue sheep at high altitude (N group). The V3–V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene was analyzed using high-throughput sequencing. Analyses based on the operational taxonomic units showed significant changes in the gut microbial communities between groups at different altitudes. At the phylum level, groups at the high altitudes had a higher relative abundance of Firmicutes and a lower relative abundance of Bacteroidetes than those at the low altitudes. A higher Firmicutes:Bacteroidetes ratio is beneficial to animals in terms of the gut microbiota-mediated energy harvest. The relative abundance of Proteobacteria was significantly higher in the gut microbiota of mouflon sheep at high altitudes. At the genus level, the Bacteroides:Prevotella ratio was significantly higher in the low-altitude group (than the high-altitude group) of mouflon sheep and the ratio was significantly higher in the high-altitude group (than the low-altitude group) in blue sheep. In addition, the Ruminococcaceae_UCG-005 related to cellulose and starch digestion was the predominant genus in blue sheep and the relative abundance of the genus was significant higher in the high-altitude group than the low-altitude group of blue sheep (P < 0.01). In conclusion, our results suggested that the gut microbiota of high-altitude groups of sheep had stronger abilities related to energy metabolism and the decomposition of substances, e.g., fiber and cellulose, and that such abilities are associated with high-altitude adaptation.

Comparison of gut microbiota diversity between wild and captive bharals (Pseudois nayaur)

BackgroundGastrointestinal microbiota play an important role in animal host immunity, nutrient metabolism, and energy acquisition, and have therefore drawn increasing attentions. This study compared the diversity of the gut microbiota of both wild and captive bharals, which is an ungulate herbivore of caprid from the Qinghai-Tibet plateau.ResultsThe sequencing of the V4-V5 region of the 16S rRNA gene via high-throughput sequencing technology showed that the dominant bacterial phyla are Firmicutes and Bacteroides both in wild and captive bharals. However, their abundance differed significantly between groups. Firmicutes were significantly higher in wild bharals, while Bacteroides were significantly higher in captive bharals. Different diets are likely a key influencing factor in the diversity and abundance of gut microbiota in bharals.ConclusionsChanges in diets affect the diversity of gut microbiota and the relative abundance of pathogenic bacteria, increasing the risk of diseases outbreak in captive bharals. The results of this study suggest that the structure and function of the gut microbiota should be regulated via dietary intervention, accurate provision of an individualized diet, and optimization of the functional network of gut microbiota and its interaction with the host. This will improve the ex situ protection of wild animals.

A detection of benzimidazole resistance-associated SNPs in the isotype-1 \u03b2-tubulin gene in Haemonchus contortus from wild blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) sympatric with sheep in Helan Mountains, China

BackgroundBenzimidazole (BZ) resistance is an increasingly serious problem due to the excessive use of this anthelmintic for controlling Haemonchus contortus, which is one of the major gastrointestinal nematodes infecting small ruminants worldwide. Three known single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), F167Y (TAC), E198A (GCA) and F200Y (TAC), in the isotype-1 β-tubulin gene of H. contortus are associated with BZ resistance. Comprehending the spread and origins of BZ resistance-associated SNPs has important implications for the control of this nematode.ResultsTwenty-seven adult H. contortus were harvested from wild blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), small wild ruminants sympatric with domestic ruminants, inhabiting the Helan Mountains, China, to monitor the status of BZ resistance. In addition, 20 adult H. contortus from domestic sheep sympatric with this wild ruminant and 36 isotype-1 β-tubulin haplotype sequences of H. contortus (two of these haplotypes, E198A3 and E198A4, possessed resistance-associated SNP E198A (GCA) from domestic ruminants in eight other geographical regions of China were used to further define the origins of BZ resistance-associated SNPs within the worms collected from blue sheep. The BZ resistance-associated SNP E198A was detected, whereas SNPs F167Y (TAC) and F200Y (TAC) were not found within the worms collected from blue sheep, and the frequency of homozygous resistant E198A (GCA) was 7.40%. The evolutionary tree and network showed consistent topologies for which there was no obvious boundary among the worms from the wild and domestic hosts, and two haplotypes (E198A1 and E198A2) possessing E198A from the wild blue sheep had two different independent origins. E198A1 had the same origin with E198A3 but E198A2 had a different origin with them. Population genetic analyses revealed a low level of Fst values (ranging from 0 to 0.19749) between all H. contortus worm groups in China.ConclusionsResults of the current study of the three BZ resistance-associated SNPs of H. contortus from wild blue sheep suggested that only E198A (GCA) was present within the worms collected from the wild ruminants and had multiple independent origins.

The complete mitochondrial genome of a blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur szechuanensis) from Gongga mountains of Sichuan, China

The blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) belongs to the subfamily Caprinae. Here, we report the complete mitochondrial genome of a blue sheep subspecies (Pseudois nayaur szechuanensis) from Gongga Mountains of Sichuan, China. The genome (GenBank accession number MH719216) has a length of 16,664 bp and exhibits the typical structure of mammalian mitochondrial genomes. Phylogenetically, the newly generated mitochondrial genome is nested within the genus Pseudois group and formed a strongly supported (100% bootstrap) sister lineage to the previously reported P. n. szechuanensis (GenBank accession number, KJ784494). These results provide more molecular data for the genetic diversity conservation of this rare species.