Protection Of Resources Research Articles

Multiscale wildfire and smoke detection in complex drone forest environments based on YOLOv8

Global climate change has triggered frequent extreme weather events, leading to a significant increase in the frequency and intensity of forest fires. Traditional fire monitoring methods such as manual inspections, sensor technologies, and remote sensing satellites have limitations. With the advancement of drone technology and deep learning, using drones combined with artificial intelligence for fire monitoring has become mainstream. This paper proposes an improved YOLOv8-based model that incorporates local convolution instead of full convolution in the C2F module and integrates the EMA module to enhance the feature channel interaction modeling capability and contextual information utilization, thereby reducing model complexity and increasing efficiency. Additionally, in order to address the risk of false positives and missed detections caused by vegetation, terrain, and lighting changes in forests, we have introduced the AgentAttention module in the Backbone. This module combines Softmax and linear attention to optimize feature extraction, improving the model’s accuracy and robustness. Furthermore, in order to tackle the challenges of detecting flames and smoke at different scales and angles, we have designed the BiFormer module, which adaptively fuses global and local features, significantly enhancing the model’s multi-scale and multi-angle detection capability. Experimental results show that the improved model achieves Precision and Recall of 93.57% and 88.51%, respectively, representing improvements of 5.05% and 2.72% over the original model. It also optimizes FPS, GFLOPs, and Params by 14.3%, 25%, and 19.7%, respectively. This research has significant application prospects in forest fire early warning, emergency response, and loss reduction, while also providing strong technical support for forest resource protection and public safety.

Hydrochemical Dynamics of River Flow in a Mountain River (Katun River as an Example)

It is noted that the efficiency of protection and rational use of water resources decreases due to uncertainty of information about spontaneously changing indicators of their quality, uniqueness of such variability and, consequently, due to impossibility to develop uniform rules of economic use of water bodies and watercourses. It is shown that these problems arise not only in water bodies subjected to intensive anthropogenic impact, but also in those remaining in practically natural conditions. The results of the authors' studies of the rivers of the Altai Mountains are presented, where such features of melt (freshly formed) water as structural shifts in time series of its quality indicators, clustering of volatility, non-seasonal cyclicity and long memory of time series were discovered. It was concluded that it is necessary to take into account not only external conditions but also intrinsic dynamic characteristics of water flow to assess water composition and properties in order to reliably predict its quality and ensure efficient water use.

A Review Paper on Detection and Mitigation of DDoS Attacks

Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks have emerged as one of the most significant threats to the availability and stability of online services, leading to widespread disruptions and economic losses. DDoS attacks overwhelm targeted systems, networks, or services with excessive traffic, rendering them unable to function properly. The detection and mitigation of DDoS attacks require a combination of proactive strategies, real-time monitoring, and advanced defence mechanisms. This paper provides an overview of current approaches to DDoS detection and mitigation, focusing on methods such as traffic analysis, anomaly detection, machine learning techniques, and rate-limiting solutions. Additionally, it explores the role of cloud-based and hybrid defence systems, which leverage distributed resources for scalable protection. The paper also examines the challenges in defending against evolving attack vectors, including those involving botnets and amplification techniques, and proposes future research directions to enhance the resilience of critical infrastructures against these threats.

Coupling Driving Force–Pressure–State–Impact–Response–Management Framework with Hydrochemical Data for Groundwater Management on Sithonia Peninsula, Greece

Water scarcity in coastal tourist areas constitutes a critical environmental and socioeconomic sustainability issue. Hence, it is crucial to implement an integrated water resource management and protection plan. In this research, the DPSIR framework is coupled with hydrochemical data on groundwater resources in the fractured aquifer of the Sithonia Peninsula in Chalkidiki, North Greece. Geographical and demographic data, together with morphology, geology, hydrology, and groundwater quality data, were collected and evaluated to categorize the hydrosystem’s driving forces, pressures, states, impacts, and responses. The main pressures that affect groundwater quality in the study area are tourism, geological formation, and land use. Based on the analysis of the DPSIR framework, the absence of a landfill site, the inadequate operation of sewage treatment plants and biological wastewater treatment systems, and tourist activity contribute significantly to the degradation of groundwater quality. Additionally, the fractured rock aquifer develops preferential flow paths to pollutants through preexisting faults, which influence groundwater quality. The hydrochemical analysis of groundwater indicates seawater intrusion in the coastal area. The combination of DPSIR analysis and a water quality index based on ion ratios of groundwater samples identifies high-risk areas of seawater intrusion. Thus, it is essential to reinforce groundwater resources by implementing managed aquifer recharge, limiting unnecessary use of groundwater during the tourist season, and storing surface water during the wet period.

Mechanisms controlling spatial variability of geogenic ammonium in coastal aquifers: Insights from Holocene sedimentary evolution.

The contamination of groundwater with geogenic ammonium (NH4+) across various geological backgrounds has garnered significant attention, particularly in coastal aquifer systems. However, there remains a gap in our understanding of the mechanisms governing the spatial variability of NH4+ in coastal groundwater at a macroscopic scale. In this study, we collected the sediment samples from two boreholes corresponding to high-NH4+-N and low-NH4+-N groundwater. We analyzed the age, physicochemical properties, and soluble organic matter (SOM) characteristics of these sediments. The aim was to reconstruct the sedimentary evolutionary history of the Pearl River Delta and establish a link between sedimentary evolutionary processes and organic matter (OM) to further elucidate the mechanism underlying the formation of spatial heterogeneity of NH4+ in groundwater. The results suggested that the studied Quaternary shallow confined porous aquifer system was predominantly formed during the Holocene and comprised three depositional stages, including fluvial facies, estuarine-tidal flat facies, and deltaic plain facies. The depositional environment significantly controlled the physicochemical and SOM characteristics of sediments. In the paleo-channel area, the aquifer was covered by estuarine-tidal flat facies sediments abundant in OM and exhibited considerable SOM degradation. Consequently, a substantial amount of ion-exchange form NH4+-N (IEF) was liberated through compaction and diffused into the aquifer. In the paleo-interfluve area, the aquifer was covered by fluvial sediments characterized by extensive weathering and low OM content, resulting in the limited production of significant amounts of IEF that could infiltrate into the aquifer. This study provided an inaugural elucidation of the control mechanism of sedimentary evolution on the spatial variability of NH4+ in coastal groundwater at a macroscale, thereby enhancing the scientific substantiation for both the exploitation and protection of groundwater resources.

Understanding and managing nutrient pollution in peri-urban wetlands: The Ciénegas del Lerma, Mexico.

Nutrient pollution has been broadly studied in developed countries, where the primary source is often agricultural diffuse pollution. However, more research is needed in developing countries with a predominance of low-income households, insufficient public service infrastructure, pressure from urban expansion, and scarce information. In this research, centered on the Lerma Cienega protected wetlands in a peri-urban area of Toluca city in Mexico, a socio-ecological systems framework was applied to study the nutrient pollution problem and recommend nutrient control measures. An export coefficient model was developed to estimate nutrient losses from micro-basin areas discharging to the wetlands, which range from 0 to 32 tonnes/year for nitrogen (N) and 0-4.6 tonnes/year for phosphorus (P). The highest annual N loss occurs in the case of a combination of agriculture or grassland with slow infiltration soils. In contrast, P loss is associated with agriculture or urban land use in combination with slow infiltration soils. By determining the sources and estimating the magnitude of nutrient pollution, nutrient mitigation solutions were considered for the peri-urban wetlands where low-income communities surround the immediate area and connections with urban and local communities facilitate options to conserve natural assets. In conclusion, controlling nutrient pollution can improve the protection of natural aquatic resources and the living conditions of local communities while generating other benefits for surrounding urban areas.

INVESTIGATION OF TECHNO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF NANOFLUID-BASED CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER PLANT

Solar concentrating power is one of the most promising technologies for generating clean electricity from the sun's incident irradiation on Earth. Today's global issues include the protection of fossil resources, the stabilization of electricity production, and participation in sustainable development. The fundamental purpose of this study is to conduct a techno-economic and environmental analysis of a nanofluid-based concentrated solar power plant in Algerian climates utilizing three nanofluids (Syltherm 800/Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Dowtherm A/Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, and Therminol VP-1/Al<sub>2</sub>O). System Advisor Model software was used to optimize techno-economic-environmental outputs, such as levelized cost of energy (LOE), annual water use, and greenhouse gas emissions. The findings clearly suggest that using nanofluids as a working fluid in concentrated solar power plants improves the efficiency and performance of this technology. Using Dowtherm A/Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> nanofluid at the Tamanrasset site resulted in the optimal LOE of 7.07¢/kWh. Furthermore, the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> increases proportionally with the size of the storage system.

Malus sieversii: a historical, genetic, and conservational perspective of the primary progenitor species of domesticated apples.

Apples are one of the most valued tree fruit crops around the world. Currently, a few highly popular and economically successful apple cultivars dominate the commercial production and serve as main genetic contributors to the development of new apple cultivars. This limited level of genetic diversity grown as a clonally propagated monoculture renders the apple industry vulnerable to the wide range of weather events, pests, and pathogens. Wild apple species are an excellent source of beneficial alleles for the wide range of biotic and abiotic stressors challenging apple production. However, the biological barriers of breeding with small-fruited wild apples greatly limit their use. Using a closely related wild species of apple such as Malus sieversii can improve the efficiency of breeding efforts and broaden the base of available genetics. M. sieversii is the main progenitor of the domesticated apple, native to Central Asia. The similarity of fruit morphology to domesticated apples and resistances to abiotic and biotic stresses makes it appealing for apple breeding programs. However, this important species is under threat of extinction in its native range. Preserving the wild apple forests in Central Asia is vital for ensuring the sustainable protection of this important genetic resource. The insufficient awareness about the complete range of challenges and opportunities associated with M. sieversii hinders the maximization of its potential benefits. This review aims to provide comprehensive information on the cultural and historical context of M. sieversii, current genetic knowledge for breeding, and the conservation challenges of wild apple forests.

Intrinsic timing of brood care in shell-dwelling cichlids.

Brood care relies on interactions between parents and offspring. Emergence of nestlings from their nest has been hypothesized to rely on the readout by the parent of the maturational state of the young. Theoretical considerations predict a conflict: parents should push for early emergence, if possible, to reduce care demands and maximize the number of reproductive cycles, whereas offspring should delay leaving to maximize resource allocation and protection by the parents. We tested this prediction in Lamprologus ocellatus, a shell-dwelling cichlid from Lake Tanganyika. We developed a laboratory paradigm to investigate the factors influencing emergence from the shell and found that mothers ensure their young stay inside the nest until 9days after egg laying. Emergence coincides with an inversion of larval phototactic tendency from dark-seeking to light-seeking behavior on day 9. When we experimentally created a timing conflict by introducing older larvae to a foster mother, the mother resisted the (subjectively) premature emergence of her adopted fry. Removing the mother did not alter the larval intrinsic schedule, provided fresh water was supplied inside the shell. These findings suggest that, in L.ocellatus brood care, maternal and offspring behavior is normally synchronized by independent timing mechanisms. Our findings highlight the intricate coordination of parental and offspring behavior, offering insights into the evolutionary pressures shaping brood care in cichlids and challenging the traditional view of parent-offspring conflict over emergence timing.

МЕДІАЦІЯ ЯК ЗАСІБ ВИРІШЕННЯ СПІРНИХ ПИТАНЬ У СФЕРІ ДЕРЖАВНОГО УПРАВЛІННЯ ЛІСОВИМ ГОСПОДАРСТВОМ

Conflict is integral to human interaction with the surrounding natural environment. In modern society, the decisive role belongs to the state administration as a regulator of political, social, economic, and other spheres of public life, which also affects people's social activities. Human influence on the natural environment has global dimensions, there are a number of issues related not only to the protection of natural resources and the prevention of environmental pollution but also to the careful and rational use and consumption of natural resources. The basis of human interaction and the use of such a type of natural resource as forests is the implementation of needs and interests, which are often mutually exclusive: on the one hand, the satisfaction of the economic needs of users of the forest industry, and on the other hand, ecological needs aimed at ensuring the integrity of this ecosystem, its protection and reproduction of forest natural resources. The relevance of the topic of the research is due to the fact that the nature of conflicts in the field of public administration in general, and in the field of forestry management in particular, is complicated by the presence of power in the management bodies, therefore communication and dialogue with public officials is extremely difficult, sometimes impossible. Alternative means of conflict resolution, in particular mediation as a tool for dialogue and communication, can prevent the emergence or resolution of already existing conflicts in the field of forestry management. The purpose of the study is to review the features of state management of forestry and to clarify the possibilities of mediation as an alternative method of resolving disputes that arise during the implementation of this type of management. The methodological basis of the research was the methods of analysis and synthesis, as well as complex, functional methods, and a analysis of the scientific literature on the subject of the article. The obtained scientific results consist in elucidating the causes of conflict situations during the interaction of authorized enterprises for the sale of forest products with intermediaries and buyers, substantiating the feasibility and effectiveness of using methods of conflict resolution alternative to court proceedings, in particular mediation, recommendations for the promotion of alternative methods of conflict resolution in the field of state management of the forest industry, their popularization, and stimulation of the participants of these relations to the wide use of such tools. Prospects for further research are the popularization of non-traditional or alternative to court decision tools for resolving conflict issues in various spheres of state administration, namely: clarification of the nature of state administration, the status of subjects of state administration in its various spheres, criteria for the predictability of dispute resolution, where one of the parties an entity endowed with powerful powers in one or another sphere of state administration acts.

Development Of Innovative Waterless Patterned Wool Fabric Designs Obtained Via Laser Technology

The main goal of this study is to present a more environmentally friendly and sustainable approach in fabric patterning and thus to ensure the protection of natural resources for the green consensus that is important today and to minimize the damage we give to the environment. When the literature is examined, it is seen that studies on the applications of laser technology, which offers the opportunity of waterless patterning, have intensified especially after the 2000s in the textile field, but there are still few studies. Although there are small laboratory-scale studies, no study has been found on the adaptation of these results to production conditions. Therefore, it can be said that the contribution of the study to the literature is important and original. In this study, first of all, the effect of laser treatment on the dye uptake ability and fastness values of wool fabrics was investigated. For this purpose, laser treatments were applied to the fabrics at different resolutions (17 and 20 dpi) and pixel times (60 and 70 µs) before dyeing. In the second part of the study, the possibilities of waterless laser patterning were investigated on fabrics subjected to laser treatment at different doses regionally. As a result of the studies, an alternative method to printing processes was developed for obtaining patterns on wool fabrics without using water and chemicals. Thus, a more environmentally friendly and sustainable approach was presented in fabric patterning.

Water Management Approaches in the Ottoman Empire

In today's world, the decrease in basic life resources, especially water, has required humanity to once again purify itself from its comfortable but irresponsible life model. Because water is not only a vital need, but also the primary factor that shapes many issues such as the settlements, lives and cultures of societies. When this interaction that has been ongoing since the existence of humanity is evaluated in terms of environmental history, the Ottoman Empire has been one of the civilizations that stands out with its success coming from its deep-rooted past. The Ottoman Empire's approach and sensitivity to water has formed the basis for it to be called the "water civilization" and therefore to be chosen as the subject of the study. In this study, the footprints of "water" of the Ottoman Empire in terms of environmental history have been followed; it aims to reveal approaches related to water supply, sanitation, conservation, protection and security of resources, floods, measures taken, and the use of water from industry to energy. In addition, it aims to shed light on the present, to be a role model for today's modern societies, to be a source of inspiration, and to contribute to environmental awareness.

Conceptual Framework for AI-powered fraud detection in E-commerce: Addressing systemic challenges in public assistance programs

Fraud in public assistance programs, such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT), poses significant economic and social challenges, diverting vital resources from vulnerable populations. Traditional fraud detection methods, including manual audits and static rule-based systems, have proven insufficient to address the complexity and adaptability of modern fraudulent schemes. This paper proposes a conceptual framework for AI-powered fraud detection, emphasizing the use of machine learning, anomaly detection, and predictive analytics to combat fraud effectively. The framework addresses systemic challenges, including evolving fraud tactics, sector-specific issues, and technological barriers such as data privacy and scalability. It highlights the core components of AI-driven systems, ensuring interoperability across public assistance programs and e-commerce platforms. Ethical considerations, such as transparency, fairness, and accountability, are integrated into the framework to prevent algorithmic bias and protect beneficiaries' rights. The paper also explores AI adoption's economic and social implications, outlining the potential for cost savings, operational efficiency, and improved equity in benefit distribution. Finally, strategic recommendations are provided to support the ethical design, sector-agnostic deployment, and continuous improvement of AI-based fraud detection systems. By addressing these challenges, this paper aims to contribute to a more efficient, fair, and transparent approach to public resource protection.

MODERN CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROPERTY RELATIONS

This article analyzes the key factors influencing the transformation of property relations in the current context of globalization and economic democratization. It examines examples of countries actively developing sharing and network-based property forms. The need for updating the methodology of property regulation and implementing adaptive management mechanisms for efficient resource allocation and protection of the interests of all economic process participants is highlighted.

The adverse effects of nanosilver on fish gills: A critical review on ecotoxicity and underlying mechanism.

The environmental safety and health impacts of nanosilver have attracted much attention due to their continuous detection in water. Although the effects of nanosilver on aquatic organisms have been reported, the ecotoxicity and underlying mechanism of nanosilver in aquatic organisms are not fully understood. Fish gills are the primary target organs of pollutant exposure in aquatic environments, and is important to clarify the impact of nanosilver on aquatic organisms by systematically and comprehensively revealing the effect of nanosilver on fish gills. Here, we review the ecotoxicity and potential mechanisms of nanosilver on fish gills. Studies have shown the most commonly used and toxic nanosilver for studying the effects of nanosilver on fish gills is 5-30 nm. Nanosilver mainly affects various physiological functions of fish gills, such as respiration, ion, and osmotic pressure regulation, by disrupting the structure and components of tissues or cells (e.g., cell membranes and mitochondria), as well as interfering with tissue lipid, amino acid, and carbohydrate metabolism. The main mechanisms of toxicity induced by nanosilver in fish gills are gill membrane damage, oxidative stress, and silver ion release. This review provides a scientific basis for the detrimental effects of nanosilver on aquatic ecological environment health and the protection of fish resources.

CONSTITUTIONAL MODEL FOR DETERMINING THE RIGHTS OF SUBJECTS IN THE FIELD OF SUBSOIL USE

The article analyzes the Constitutional model for determining subjects' rights in the field of subsoil use in Kazakhstan. The role of the Republic of Kazakhstan's Constitution in forming the legal basis for the use and protection of subsoil, including the rights of the state and individuals, is studied. The main provisions regulating access to natural resources and mechanisms for their protection are considered. It examines the pivotal role of the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan in establishing a legal framework for the use and protection of subsoil resources, including the delineation of rights for both the state and individuals. Attention is focused on balancing interests between public and private entities and the need to comply with environmental standards. It analyzes comparative approaches from other countries to identify best practices and potential pitfalls that Kazakhstan could avoid. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for greater stakeholder engagement in decision-making processes to ensure that the rights and interests of local communities are adequately represented and protected. As a result of the analysis, current problems of legal regulation are identified, and recommendations are proposed for improving legislation in subsoil use, aimed at ensuring sustainable and rational use of natural resources in Kazakhstan.

Dynamic Evolution and Trade-Off/Synergistic Effects of Ecosystem Services in the Northeast Tiger and Leopard National Park from 2000 to 2022

To explore the dynamic evolution of ecosystem services in the last 22 years, and to measure the trade-off and synergy between ecosystem services, it is of great significance to realize the ecological protection and sustainable development of the Northeast Tiger and Leopard National Park (NTLNP). Therefore, based on land use changes, soil and meteorological data, this research analyzed the changes of land use in NTLNP from 2000 to 2022. The habitat quality (HQ), carbon storage (CS), water conservation (WC) and soil conservation (SC) in the NTLNP were evaluated by the InVEST model, and the synergy/trade-off among different ecosystem services were analyzed quantitatively. The results are as follows: (1) Land use in NTLNP changed from broad-leaved forest to mixed and coniferous forest from 2000 to 2022. (2) Average HQ increased over time, while CS increased in coniferous and mixed forest areas, but decreased in cropland and grassland areas. WC decreased in the central and southern regions. SC decreased in coniferous forests in the southern part of the study area. (3) HQ showed a trade-off relationship with CS, WC, and SC of 50%, mainly distributed in the southwest of NTLNP at higher elevations. CS showed synergistic correlations with WC and SC, mainly distributed in grassland and broad-leaved forest areas in the southwest; areas showing trade-off relationships are mainly distributed in cropland and broad-leaved forest areas. WC and SC showed a synergistic correlation in 90.2% of the areas. In the past 22 years, ecosystem service capacity of NTLNP is increasing; in the future, we should pay more attention to the optimization of NTLNP function zoning, and gradually explore and improve the national park management system, to balance the relationship between the protection of ecological resources and the development of human society and economy.

Incentivizing water conservation in agriculture: a case study of the Great Salt Lake watersheds

Abstract Conserving agricultural water resources is crucial for sustainable development, yet, developing effective policies is challenging due to limited site-specific information. We present a framework combining economic models and remote-sensing data to spatially explicitly assess willingness-to-accept payments to irrigators and unit water-saving costs. Applied to three major tributary watersheds of the Great Salt Lake, this framework identifies areas with the highest conservation potential and cost-effectiveness. We find that an annual water conservation goal of 581 million m3, necessary to restore the lake within 30 years, can be met by fallowing irrigated alfalfa fields. With 95% certainty, this goal would be fully achieved with annual payments of US$325 million under site-specific payments or US$376 million under county-level payments, or at least 84% achieved with US$341 million under watershed-level payments. This framework can be applied to explore policy priorities and the economic viability of land-based natural resource protection, informing funding decisions and achieving conservation goals in various contexts.

Case Study: The Next Generation of Network Management - AI, Automation, and Security in a Connected World

Modern data center networks face unprecedented challenges in ensuring robust security due to the evolving complexity of cyber threats and the increasing sophistication of attack vectors. This study proposes comprehensive, multi-layered security architecture tailored for data center environments, integrating advanced technologies such as Next-Generation Firewalls (NGFWs), Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA), AI-driven anomaly detection, SQL-based policy management, and Neo4j knowledge graphs. The architecture leverages NGFWs for deep packet inspection and application-layer filtering, fortifying the network perimeter while enabling advanced threat detection. ZTA principles enforce least-privilege access, requiring continuous authentication and contextual validation for all users and devices. A relational database underpins security policy management, ensuring granular control and consistent enforcement across the network. Neo4j knowledge graphs offer a dynamic, graph-based visualization of the network topology, enabling real-time analysis of relationships and communication paths to uncover potential vulnerabilities, attack vectors, and insider threats. The core of the system’s intelligence lies in the integration of machine learning models, particularly Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, for anomaly detection and predictive analytics. By analyzing real-time network traffic data, the AI models autonomously detect unusual patterns indicative of security incidents, enabling proactive threat mitigation. The synergy between these components ensures a scalable and resilient security framework capable of addressing modern security challenges. This architecture is designed to automate key aspects of threat detection, incident response, and policy enforcement, significantly reducing operational overhead while improving response times. The result is a flexible and adaptive security solution that enhances visibility, control, and protection of critical data center resources. By combining these cutting-edge technologies, this proposed framework demonstrates its capability to provide a robust defense mechanism for data center networks, ensuring operational continuity and compliance with stringent security requirements. This paper highlights the system's technical components, demonstrates its functionality through a detailed use case, and underscores its effectiveness in securing complex, high-value network environments against evolving cyber threats.

Reduction behaviour of fayalite within copper slag during carbothermal reduction to recovery metallic iron

ABSTRACT Resource utilisation of metallurgical slag is of great significance to environmental protection and sustainable development of resources. In this paper, the carbothermal reduction of fayalite within copper slag was investigated, and the mechanism of CaO promoting the carbothermal reduction of fayalite was revealed. The results showed that fayalite was reduced to metallic iron and silicon dioxide. After the addition of CaO, the actual starting of reaction temperature for carbothermal reduction of fayalite is decreased from 974 °C to 950 °C. Ca2+ in CaO breaks the Si–O bond in fayalite and releases FeO, thus facilitating the reduction reaction. Excess CaO and SiO2 form calcium silicate salts with high melting points, which decrease the diameter of metallic iron particles from 346 μm to 61 μm. This study provides a theoretical and experimental basis for improving iron recovery from reduced copper slag.