Biodiversity Conservation In Protected Areas Research Articles

Wildlife conservation society’s activities and biodiversity conservation in protected areas in cross river state, Nigeria

Despite the activities of the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) in protected areas in Cross River State, a high level of forest resource exploitation is still occasioned by indiscriminate logging, wildlife poaching, bush burning, and dangerous fishing. Previous studies in the study area and Africa have identified some reasons for this continuous biodiversity exploitation. However, the effect of the activities of the WCS has yet to be analyzed. This study used a correlational research design to examine the Wildlife Conservation Society's (WCS) activities and biodiversity conservation in Protected Areas in Cross River State. A sample of 1360 respondents from a population of 76,704 inhabitants in the 25 support Zone Communities in Afi, Mbe, and Okwangwo Divisions of Cross River National Park (CRNP) was drawn. After receiving face and content validity from experts, a 30-item structured questionnaire was used for data collection. The instrument's Cronbach alpha reliability indices varied between 0.83 and 0.89. The data analysis method employed was Simple Linear Regression analysis. The analysis revealed that conservation education activities, alternative livelihood support, and anti-poaching patrols significantly contributed to biodiversity conservation in Protected Areas in Cross River State. Based on this result, it was concluded that the activities of WCS to ensure adequate conservation of biodiversity-ecosystem in Protected Areas in Cross River State yield intermediate results. It was recommended that WCS intensify efforts in educating community people around protected areas in Cross River State, increase and monitor alternative livelihood support, and intensify anti-poaching patrols in all the protected areas.

Assessment of the Potential to Promote Nature-based Tourism Industry in the Protected Area Network of Sri Lanka


 
 
 
 Promoting the tourism industry is one of the proven strategies for Sri Lanka to address current economic crises. Sri Lanka has a high potential to develop nature-based tourism with its high biodiversity. The Forest Department and the Department of Wildlife Conservation manage 30% of the country's land as Protected Areas. In comparison to the tourism income generated through archeological sites of the country, the biodiversity sector has earned 83%-90% from 2012 to 2016, without any significant promotions and it shows the potential to develop nature-based tourism. This study aimed to examine the potentiality of using the Protected Area network to promote nature- based tourism. The PESTEL approach was utilized to assess the potentiality, and primary data was gathered through ten structured Key Informant Interviews of senior officials of both the destination management agencies, tourism authorities, and experts. The secondary data were obtained by reviewing official reports and records. The Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, Forest Ordinance, and their amendments provide legal provisions relating to tourism in Protected Areas with certain limitations. The Wildlife Preservation Fund can be utilized for conservation and development activities in protected areas, including tourism promotion. Even if a higher degree of ̳tourism friendly‘ provisions is available with the Forest Department, there is no mechanism for utilizing the income generated through tourism activities for conservation as revenue credits to the Treasury. Insufficient financial allocation through the treasury, lack of innovative financial solutions for resource mobilization, and ineffective governance mechanisms for promoting public- private partnerships are identified as challenging factors in forest and biodiversity conservation in protected areas. This leads to environmental degradation and biodiversity loss in the country. The study found the potentiality of developing projects worth one billion LKR per annum with more than 20% internal rate of return, if the government develops a mechanism that increases the
 
 
 
 
 benefits/incentives available for the Forest Department from tourism, ensures cooperation and
 
 
 
 
 comprehensive planning among both the departments, introduce innovative sustainable financing solutions, amend the policy and institutional framework in favour of public, private community partnerships, and develop a tourism promotion roadmap for both the Departments. Such initiatives would increase the socioeconomic and environmental benefits to the communities living in the Functional Resource Unit of the Protected Areas. It could be strengthened with an innovative Protected Area management model such as the community forestry approach. The study recommends that tourism should be considered an effective entry point for sustainable use, biodiversity conservation, and economic growth at local and national levels.
 
 
 
 
 Keywords: Protected areas, Nature-based tourism, Innovative financing, Public-private partnerships, Tourism for conservation
 
 
 

Maximizing the potential of protected areas for biodiversity conservation, climate refuge and carbon storage in the face of climate change: A case study of Southwest China

A forward-looking approach that incorporates biodiversity and nature-based solutions is needed for climate change adaptation. In this research, we identified conservation priorities in 2050 for Southwest China (SWC) based on habitat suitability, climate stability, and carbon storage capacity and presented the results for 12 SSP-GCMs combinations. Our findings indicate that the mean temperature of the SWC may increase significantly, with the largest predicted rise being of 2.78 °C and the smallest being 1.36 °C. The carbon storage capacity of terrestrial ecosystems in 89.03 % of the SWC's protected areas (PAs) is forecast to increase by 2050. Among the 237 PAs, habitat suitability is expected to increase in 158 PAs. The climate change intensity in all PAs is expected to remain at a rate of the weakest 15 % in the entire SWC. Based on our research, areas with high habitat suitability, climate stability, and carbon storage capacity at the same time in 2050 would cover 23.80 % of the SWC, with an area of about 550,000 km2. The representation of the SWC's existing PAs network reveals that the PAs' overlap with conservation hotspots is only 13.71 %, with just 12.69 % of these hotspots being adequately protected. Thus we propose a stepwise post-2020 conservation plan for the SWC from now through to the mid-point of the century. By 2030, 25 % of the SWC is expected to be protected, with the target increasing to 33 % and 43 % by 2040 and 2050, respectively. To achieve these goals, significant efforts are required like developing a dynamic future planning mechanisms.

English

This study was designed to assess Pare people’s perception about the role of protected areas in biodiversity conservation. Viewpoints on factors causing biodiversity loss, related consequences and people’s participation in forest husbandry activities were also investigated. Data were collected from Same and Mwanga Districts using semi structured interview. Results indicated generally that majority of people in the two districts regardless of sex have positive perception on the role of protected areas (p<0.01). However, consequences of biodiversity loss are more serious in Same than in Mwanga District. This contradicts the general perception. Factors that cause biodiversity loss were scored less serious in Same District and only less that 50% of people participate in forestry husbandry activities. The need to understand people’s perception prior to establishment of protected areas is emphasized. Where the general perception is positive, ascertain existence of supportive evidence as it may be misguiding as observed in Same District.   Key words: Conservation of forest biodiversity, perception of Pare people, role of PAs, consequences of biodiversity loss.

Awareness of urban communities on biodiversity conservation in Tanzania’s protected areas

This study used semi-structured interviews in two cities, Dodoma and Arusha, in Tanzania, to assess the difference in people’s conservation awareness between the two cities. Our results revealed that urban people were generally positive towards most statements related to biodiversity conservation in protected areas, and in a few cases, variations between people from different occupations and education levels were significant. For instance, 87% (n = 376) of our respondents agreed with the statement "The knowledge obtained through conservation education is very important in changing our attitude towards protected areas," as well as 71% (n = 376) of our respondents agreed with the statement that "It is important to involve school children in conservation education." We predicted that people in Arusha would be more positive toward all six conservation statements than people in Dodoma (the capital city) because Arusha is close to many protected areas and is a tourist hub. We also predicted that people in Arusha would have more knowledge and awareness of biodiversity conservation than those in Dodoma. However, this prediction was not supported as people from Dodoma were significantly more positive than people from Arusha. This indicates that people in Dodoma are more concerned about biodiversity conservation than people in Arusha. This variation might be influenced by the costs associated with conservation, as people in urban Dodoma live far from conservation challenges such as livestock depredation and/or crop raiding compared to people in urban Arusha.

Linking livelihood and biodiversity conservation in protected areas: Community based tourism development perspective from developing country

Balancing biodiversity conservation and community livelihoods is a major challenge for sustainable management of protected areas (PAs) in developing countries. Researchers and practitioners are looking at ways to resolve this challenge by connecting the livelihoods of people living near protected areas with conservation efforts. This study aims to assess community-based tourism development as a tool to link local livelihoods and biodiversity conservation in protected areas in developing county context. The study employs a mixed research approach with a descriptive research design. Structured questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews are used to collect data from local communities residing inside and adjacent areas of Nech Sar National Park in Ethiopia. The results reveal that the local communities around the national park are exposed to various shocks and vulnerability contexts such as poverty, food insecurity, and resource use conflict. Consumptive resource usage, recurring fire catastrophes, agricultural encroachment, and illegal fishing are all threatening the park’s biodiversity conservation efforts. Despite the impact of tourism on their livelihoods is marginal, local grassroots have a positive attitude towards the development of community-based tourism. Community-based tourism development which provides alternative livelihood options to local grassroots around protected areas can play significant role in the conservation of biodiversity and alleviating poverty.

Towards climate-smart, three-dimensional protected areas for biodiversity conservation in the high seas

Marine species are moving rapidly in response to warming, often in different directions and with variations dependent on location and depth. Given the current impetus to increase the area of protected ocean to 30%, conservation planning must include the 64% of the ocean beyond national jurisdictions, which in turn requires associated design challenges for conventional conservation to be addressed. Here we present a planning approach for the high seas that conserves biodiversity, minimizes exposure to climate change, retains species within reserve boundaries and reduces conflict with fishing. This is developed using data from across four depth domains, considering 12,932 vertebrate, invertebrate and algal species and three climate scenarios. The resultant climate-smart conservation areas cover 6% of the high seas and represent a low-regret option that provides a nucleus for developing a full network of high-seas marine reserves. Protecting the ocean from increasing threats requires the development of high-seas marine reserve networks. An approach that optimizes biodiversity, minimizes climate change exposure and reduces fisheries conflict enables low-regret climate-smart conservation areas to be identified.

Priority areas for protection of plant-pollinator interaction networks in the Atlantic Forest

Quantitative methods of prioritization are necessary to optimize the selection of protected areas for biodiversity conservation. Reserve selection is traditionally based on single species, considers representative habitats or, occasionally, spatial configuration but mostly the needs of the society. However, protecting particular species as independent entities is not enough to ensure effective conservation of ecological communities, since their functioning depends on the interactions between species. We propose a strategy to identify priority areas for protection based on species interaction networks. Similar local networks are grouped according to two different sets of network features: interacting species pairs and overall network structure. These groups or clusters of networks are used to delimitate ecological subregions, which are then compared to current nature reserves. Subregions with a lower proportion of protected area are given higher priority. Results from species pairs and network structure are finally combined to obtain the network protection priority index. We present a case study applying this strategy to the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, using plant-pollinator networks. We found that subregions based on network structure show a more grainy pattern, and approach spatial patterns related to forest formation types, while subregions based on species pairs show more distinct patches and a higher level of detail in the division, especially for interior forests. Highest priority is given to portions of the seasonal semi-deciduous and deciduous forest, especially NE São Paulo, NW Paraná, N Rio Grande do Sul and E Minas Gerais and, secondarily, W São Paulo and the São Francisco region. The approach we suggest here goes beyond the level of species, seeking to perpetuate the ecological interactions and networks that make up biological communities. It is our hope and conviction that this strategy contributes to the development of more effective conservation planning.

Advances in conservation biogeography: towards protected area effectiveness under anthropogenic threats

This study endorses the main findings of a PhD thesis (Hoffmann 2020) and the manuscripts included intend to advance the success of protected areas in biodiversity conservation mediated through effective and efficient protected area management. The manuscripts provide missing scientific evaluations that modern conservation planning over large geographical extents requires: the comprehensive quantification of species diversity within and between protected areas; the development and application of efficient and effective in-situ monitoring and remote sensing of species diversity; and the assessment of anthropogenic climate change threats to protected areas. Moreover, the manuscripts aim at spreading conservation-minded data and knowledge by means of publishing open-access papers, open-source software and open data. This thesis synopsis is to stimulate a growing scientific and public debate on the effectiveness of protected areas and nature conservation under anthropogenic threats, which is necessary to stop nature’s decline and thus guarantee a sustainable future for the welfare of generations to come.

Notes on the Hyperossified Pumpkin Toadlets of the Genus Brachycephalus (Anura: Brachycephalidae) with the Description of a New Species

Four species of pumpkin toadlets are currently recognized by the extreme condition of hyperossification in the skull and vertebral column within the genus Brachycephalus. In addition to their larger body size, relative to other congeneric species, Brachycephalus darkside, Brachycephalus ephippium, Brachycephalus garbeanus, and Brachycephalus margaritatus share remarkable osteological features, such as the large paravertebral plates forming an ornamented dorsal bone shield, visible through the integument. We add to the current knowledge of this group by analyzing its diversity and describing a new hyperossified species from some important Atlantic Forest remnants in southeastern Brazil, including those bordering Sao Paulo, the largest and most populous city in South America. The new species is diagnosed by a combination of morphological, osteological, and bioacoustic characters, with further evidence of mtDNA sequences to confirm its distinction from the other congeners. The parotic and paravertebral bone plates externally bordered with a rough and pale contour can readily distinguish the new species from the other hyperossified species within Brachycephalus. The new species is widely distributed along the Serra do Mar mountain range, including the regionally named Serra de Paranapiacaba, in elevations from 700 to 1000 m above sea level (a.s.l.), in the central coast of the state of Sao Paulo, southeastern Brazil. We discuss valuable morphological characters within this group of species, reinforce the need for further studies, and highlight the relevance of protected areas for biodiversity conservation in metropolitan regions.

Temporal evolution of bushmeat traded in High Niger National Park, Guinea, West Africa

AbstractThe High Niger National Park is one of the most important protected areas for biodiversity conservation in Guinea. This study examined the temporal evolution of the bushmeat trade in three rural markets in the Park and in the nearest urban centre, Faranah. We collected data in markets during August–November 2017 in three villages around the Mafou core area of the Park and in Faranah, and compared these data with equivalent published data from the same rural areas in 2001 and 2011 and from Faranah in 1994, 1995, 1996 and 2011. Across all study periods, mammals predominated in the bushmeat trade. In rural markets we noted a marked increase in the number of carcasses and biomass offered for sale from 2001 onwards, whereas in Faranah there were no differences over time other than a peak in 1996. Overall, there was an increase in the sale of smaller sized species (< 10 kg), and a marked increase in the sale of species that forage on crops, including the green monkey Chlorocebus sabaeus and warthog Phacochoerus africanus, in spite of religious taboos against the consumption of primates and Suidae. Green monkeys were not sold in markets during the 1990s but were the dominant species in Faranah in 2011 and 2017. Our findings suggest a marked shift in traded species, associated with crop protection by farmers and economic incentives to kill and trade crop-foraging species. This study highlights the value of a longitudinal perspective for investigating the dynamic relationship between local livelihoods and biodiversity conservation.

СЕТЬ ОСОБО ОХРАНЯЕМЫХ ПРИРОДНЫХ ТЕРРИТОРИЙ ПЕРМСКОГО КРАЯ1

The paper considers the modern network of protected natural areas in the Perm region. The study determines the current status of the network and the priorities of its geographical formation; investigates representation of six natural areas in the network; identifies the role of protected areas in biodiversity conservation. Based on the regional method, the degree of the protected areas natural environment degradation has been established. The network of protected areas consists of 361 objects of federal, regional and local significance. The total area reaches 10.7% of the Perm region‘s territory. The main component of the network is represented by 257 protected areas of regional importance. In the region, 6 natural areas have been identified: middle taiga, southern taiga, mixed coniferous-deciduous forests, Kungur forest-steppe, Western Urals, Northern Urals. Theinternational level of the protected areas network development has only been achieved in the Northern Urals. The share of protected areas in the middle taiga is higher than the average Russian level; for mixed coniferous-deciduous forests, it is close to the average Russian level. The least protected are southern taiga (4.8%) and forest-steppe ecosystems (3.8%). The most disastrous is conservation of the natural environment of the Kungur forest-steppe. There is a very small number of forest-steppe areas suitable for creating full-fledged protected areas. 89 rare species of biota inhabit the protected areas. All mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates that are rare for the Perm region are covered with complete protection. Outside the network of protected areas, there are habitats of 7 species of birds, 21 species of angiosperms, 1 species of the fern-like, lycopods and lichen. On this basis, it is possible to develop territorial protection measures. The average environmental degradation of regional protected areas in the Perm region as a whole is 1.45 points. The degradation of protected areas is increasing in the series: middle taiga – Northern Urals – southern taiga – Western Urals – mixed coniferous-deciduous forests – Kungur forest-steppe.

Trends and patterns of ecotourism research: practices and implications

The present review seeks to exhibit the trends and patterns of ecotourism research, and identify the indicators of ecotourism sustainability in IUCN protected areas (PAs) by exploring growth and orientation of research articles, and conducting thematic analysis, using systematic review approach, PRISMA. The review reveals that there has been a persistent growth of ecotourism research worldwide since 1987, resulting from the increasing recognition of ecotourism potential for socio-cultural and economic development of local communities, and biodiversity conservation in PAs. Geographically, ecotourism research is found to be highly skewed towards the national parks in continents of Asia and Africa, depicting the existence of hedonic characteristics in terms of their major mega biodiversity hotspots. Realising these benefits and potentials of ecotourism, countries, particularly developing ones, are now embracing the ecotourism paradigm into sustainable development policies. Finally, the review recommends some implications for theoretical and practical knowledge, sustainable development policy and future research.

Оцінка екологічної ефективності природоохоронних заходів із збереження біорізноманіття за індикатором «жива планета» в Чернігівській області

Оцінка екологічної ефективності природоохоронних заходів із збереження біорізноманіття за індикатором «жива планета» в Чернігівській області

Challenges of Participatory Community Monitoring of Biodiversity in Protected Areas in Brazilian Amazon

Participatory community monitoring programs (PCM) have become an important methodological innovation for the management of biodiversity conservation in protected areas. Based on the participation of the local communities, they are presented as less costly programs than conventional ones. However, in practical terms, such programs pose serious implementation challenges. In this article, we identify the achievements, obstacles, and perspectives of four PCM implemented in the state of Amazonas, Brazil. Based on bibliographical and documentary research, direct observations and in-person interviews with program managers and specialists, we qualitatively evaluated these programs with respect to participation, data production and retrieval, and financing. We found that the performances of these programs were not yet adequate to their protected areas management priorities and that they had not yet generated perceptible benefits enough to enhance community trust and full appropriation of the programs’ outcomes by resource users and by conservation unit management teams.

Effectiveness of Protected Areas for biodiversity conservation: Mammal occupancy patterns in the Iguaçu National Park, Brazil

Protected areas – widely recognized as the main strategy for biodiversity conservation – have greatly expanded, covering ∼15% of the Earth; however, we still lack detailed information on biodiversity to evaluate their effectiveness. This is particularly urgent for biodiversity hotspots where protected areas are islands within human modified landscapes. We focus on mammals of the Iguaçu National Park – one of the most important parks in the Atlantic Forest hotspot – to evaluate the effectiveness of protected areas in conserving biodiversity. We monitored 300km2 with 37 cameras traps during five years to assess if (1) species occupancy declined over time, and (2) if species occupancy/detectability are spatially associated with illegal hunting, proximity to tourism infrastructure and distance from the edge, estimating the proportion of the park where these negative effects are detected. Many species that are rare in most Atlantic Forest remnants presented high occupancy within the park, and no decline in occupancy was observed over time. However, the distribution of 11 species was spatially associated primarily with the distance from the edge and proximity to tourism infrastructure, resulting in a decline, across half of the park area, from 13 to 23% in occupancy and from 19 to 35% in detectability (values averaged among species). These negative effects should be even stronger on smaller protected areas, which are the majority in highly altered hotspots. Re-establishing and properly managing buffer zones and restricting tourism to localized areas are essential to ensure the effectiveness of protected areas for biodiversity conservation.

Earth observation data for habitat monitoring in protected areas of India

The role of protected areas in biodiversity conservation was recognised in a globally agreed target to be achieved by 2020. Increasing concerns on biodiversity and ecosystem services have led to rising in the number and extent of protected areas. Evaluating the conservation effectiveness of protected areas is difficult, especially due to the paucity of data on long-term changes in forest cover. In order to understand the impact and efficacy of protected area it is highly desirable to monitor the habitat for assessing the conservation status. Earth observation data is useful to monitor the changing extent of habitats and threats over time. The present work has considered the forest cover change and fragmentation (1930–1975–1985–1995–2005–2013) as the potential indicators to evaluate the conservation effectiveness for 175 protected areas of India. Spatial pattern processes of fragmentation analysed within the current study were core forest loss and other fragmentation classes. Historically 7.3% of the reduction was observed in large core forests from 1930 to 2013. This study reveals that protected areas of India are effective in controlling deforestation and consequently fragmentation. High resolution satellite data based information is needed for analyzing degradation in protected areas including invasion of alien species, forest fires, grazing pressure, selective logging and small scale agricultural encroachments towards continuing conservation of biodiversity and improving carbon stocks.

Perception and attitude of pastoralists on livestock-wildlife interactions around Awash National Park, Ethiopia: implication for biodiversity conservation

IntroductionPastoral livestock share grazing areas and watering points with wildlife around the protected areas in Eastern Africa. This causes a high degree of livestock-wildlife interactions, leading to conflicts between the local community and park staff. Thus, understanding the perception and attitude of local people towards livestock-wildlife interaction is very crucial to optimize both livestock production and biodiversity conservation in protected areas. This paper presents the perception and attitude of local community towards livestock-wildlife interactions around Awash National Park (ANP), Ethiopia.MethodsInterview to 180 randomly selected households, representing Afar, Ittu, and Kereyu ethnic groups living around ANP, was conducted from August to December 2015 using a semi-structured questionnaire. Data on community attitude towards wildlife, livestock production systems, and its constraints were collected through focus group- and key informant discussions. We used ordinal logistic regression model to analyze community attitude towards wildlife conservation.ResultsRespondents ranked feed shortage (0.38), lack of water (0.32), and climate change (0.30) as the major constraints of livestock production around ANP. A high degree of conflict (79%; χ2 = 24.09; df = 2; P = 0.000) between the local community and park was recorded.About 73% of the households would be ready to live in harmony with the park. However, 85% of park staff considered the community as a threat, due to high livestock grazing pressure and illegal park resource use. Overall, community attitude towards wildlife significantly varied (χ2 = 46.28; df = 4; P = 0.00) particularly due to educational level (χ2 = 15.96; df = 6; P = 0.014), income source (χ2 = 16.77; df = 2; P = 0.00), and distance of household from ANP (χ2 = 20.51; df = 4; P = 0.00). The logistic regression model revealed that ethnic group, education, benefit obtained, and conflict with the park were significantly associated with attitude towards wildlife (χ215 = 76.62; df = 16; P = 0.000).ConclusionsMajority of respondents showed positive attitude towards wildlife, implying a better chance to mobilize the community for conservation activities in the park. Thus, expansion of formal and adult education as well as livelihood diversification strategies that could benefit the pastoral community would help to improve community attitude towards wildlife so that both wildlife conservation and livestock production can be optimized around ANP.

Integrating Multiple Spatial Datasets to Assess Protected Areas: Lessons Learnt from the Digital Observatory for Protected Areas (DOPA)

The Digital Observatory for Protected Areas (DOPA) has been developed to support the European Union’s efforts in strengthening our capacity to mobilize and use biodiversity data so that they are readily accessible to policymakers, managers, researchers and other users. Assessing protected areas for biodiversity conservation at national, regional and international scales implies that methods and tools are in place to evaluate characteristics such as the protected areas’ connectivity, their species assemblages (including the presence of threatened species), the uniqueness of their ecosystems, and the threats these areas are exposed to. Typical requirements for such analyses are data on protected areas, information on species distributions and threat status, and information on ecosystem distributions. By integrating all these global data consistently in metrics and indicators, the DOPA provides the means to allow end-users to evaluate protected areas individually but also to compare protected areas at the country and ecoregion level to, for example, identify potential priorities for further conservation research, action and funding. Since the metrics and indicators are available through web services, the DOPA further allows end-users to develop their own applications without requiring management of large databases and processing capacities. In addition to examples illustrating how the DOPA can be used as an aid to decision making, we discuss the lessons learnt in the development of this global biodiversity information system, and outline planned future developments for further supporting conservation strategies.

Understanding local‐scale drivers of biodiversity outcomes in terrestrial protected areas

Conservation relies heavily on protected areas (PAs) maintaining their key biodiversity features to meet global biodiversity conservation goals. However, PAs have had variable success, with many failing to fully maintain their biodiversity features. The current literature concerning what drives variability in PA performance is rapidly expanding but unclear, sometimes contradictory, and spread across multiple disciplines. A clear understanding of the drivers of successful biodiversity conservation in PAs is necessary to make them fully effective. Here, we conduct a comprehensive assessment of the current state of knowledge concerning the drivers of biological outcomes within PAs, focusing on those that can be addressed at local scales. We evaluate evidence in support of potential drivers to identify those that enable more successful outcomes and those that impede success and provide a synthetic review. Interactions are discussed where they are known, and we highlight gaps in understanding. We find that elements of PA design, management, and local and national governance challenges, species and system ecology, and sociopolitical context can all influence outcomes. Adjusting PA management to focus on actions and policies that influence the key drivers identified here could improve global biodiversity outcomes.