Electrostatic Potential Profile Research Articles

Steady electrodiffusion in hydrogel-colloid composites: macroscale properties from microscale electrokinetics

A rigorous microscale electrokinetic model for hydrogel-colloid composites is adopted to compute macroscale profiles of electrolyte concentration, electrostatic potential, and hydrostatic pressure across membranes that separate electrolytes with different concentrations. The membranes are uncharged polymeric hydrogels in which charged spherical colloidal particles are immobilized and randomly dispersed with a low solid volume fraction. Bulk membrane characteristics and performance are calculated from a continuum microscale electrokinetic model (Hill 2006b, c). The computations undertaken in this paper quantify the streaming and membrane potentials. For the membrane potential, increasing the volume fraction of negatively charged inclusions decreases the differential electrostatic potential across the membrane under conditions where there is zero convective flow and zero electrical current. With low electrolyte concentration and highly charged nanoparticles, the membrane potential is very sensitive to the particle volume fraction. Accordingly, the membrane potential--and changes brought about by the inclusion size, charge and concentration--could be a useful experimental diagnostic to complement more recent applications of the microscale electrokinetic model for electrical microrheology and electroacoustics (Hill and Ostoja-Starzewski 2008, Wang and Hill 2008).

Quantitative phase imaging of nanoscale electrostatic and magnetic fields using off-axis electron holography

Off-axis electron holography in the transmission electron microscope is a powerful interferometric technique that enables electrostatic and magnetic fields to be imaged and quantified with spatial resolution often approaching the nanometer scale. Here, we demonstrate the capabilities of the technique for phase quantification at the nanoscale by briefly reviewing some of our recent studies of nanostructured materials. Examples that are described include determination of the electrostatic potential profiles associated with doped Si- and GaAs-based semiconductor devices, measurement of hole accumulation in Ge quantum dots, mapping of polarization fields in III-nitride heterostructures, and observation of the remanent states and reversal mechanisms of lithographically patterned magnetic nanorings. Some issues associated with sample preparation for doped semiconductor heterostructures are also briefly discussed.

Quantitative dopant profiling of p-n junction in InGaAs∕AlGaAs light-emitting diode using off-axis electron holography

The electrostatic potential profile across the p-n junction of an InGaAs light-emitting diode with linearly graded AlGaAs triangular barriers has been measured using off-axis electron holography. Simulations of the junction profile show small discrepancies with experimental measurements in the region of the p-and n-doped AlGaAs barriers, which are located away from the InGaAs quantum wells. Revised simulations reproduce the measurements reasonably when a carrier-trap density of 6×1016cm−3 in the AlGaAs barriers is subtracted from the dopant concentrations. The presence of oxygen impurities is considered as the most likely reason for the reduction in doping efficiency.

Probing Individual Quantum Dots: Noise in Self-Assembled Systems

In this work we explore the noise characteristics in lithographically-defined two terminal devices containing self-assembled InAs/InP quantum dots. The experimental ensemble of InAs dots show random telegraph noise (RTN) with tuneable relative amplitude-up to 150%-in well defined temperature and source-drain applied voltage ranges. Our numerical simulation indicates that the RTN signature correlates with a very low number of quantum dots acting as effective charge storage centres in the structure for a given applied voltage. The modulation in relative amplitude variation can thus be associated to the altered electrostatic potential profile around such centres and enhanced carrier scattering provided by a charged dot.

Quantitative Analysis of Dopant Distribution and Activation Across p-n Junctions in AlGaAs/GaAs Light-Emitting Diodes Using Off-Axis Electron Holography

Off-axis electron holography has been used to measure the electrostatic potential profile across the p-n junction of an AlGaAs/GaAs light-emitting diode with linearly graded triangular AlGaAs barriers. Simulations of the junction profile showed small discrepancies with experiment when the nominal dopant concentrations of Si and Be impurities were used. Revised simulations reproduced the measurements reasonably using reduced dopant levels that reflected the efficiency of dopant activation. Band-edge diagrams simulated with the nominal and revised dopant concentrations were also compared in terms of the effect that activation efficiency had on the AlGaAs barrier shape and carrier transport. It is concluded that electron holography measurements combined with modeling offer device designers and growers a helpful tool for analyzing and confirming doping profiles in complex heterostructures.

Development of a Heavy Ion Beam Probe for Measuring Electrostatic Potential Profile and Its Fluctuation in LHD

A heavy ion beam probe (HIBP) using a 3-MV tandem accelerator has been installed on large helical device (LHD). Electrostatic potential in core plasma can be measured under the toroidal magnetic field strength of up to 3 T. By using the HIBP, the transition of potential profiles from electron-root to ion-root is observed in core plasmas during ramp-up of the electron density. Potential fluctuations are also measured electron cyclotron current drive (ECCD). Two kind of characteristic fluctuations are observed. One is a reversed-shear-induced Alfvén eigenmode (RSAE), whose frequency varies during the evolution of the rotational transform profile, and the other is with a constant geodeisc acoustic mode (GAM) frequency.

The dynamic organic p–n junction

Static p-n junctions in inorganic semiconductors are exploited in a wide range of today's electronic appliances. Here, we demonstrate the in situ formation of a dynamic p-n junction structure within an organic semiconductor through electrochemistry. Specifically, we use scanning kelvin probe microscopy and optical probing on planar light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) with a mixture of a conjugated polymer and an electrolyte connecting two electrodes separated by 120 microm. We find that a significant portion of the potential drop between the electrodes coincides with the location of a thin and distinct light-emission zone positioned >30 microm away from the negative electrode. These results are relevant in the context of a long-standing scientific debate, as they prove that electrochemical doping can take place in LECs. Moreover, a study on the doping formation and dissipation kinetics provides interesting detail regarding the electronic structure and stability of the dynamic organic p-n junction, which may be useful in future dynamic p-n junction-based devices.

Development and Fabrication of Cylindrical Silicon-on-Insulator Microdosimeter Arrays

Recent developments in the fabrication and simulation of prototype silicon-on-insulator (SOI) microdosimeter arrays are presented. A new planar array design has been proposed which has a number of advantages over previous elongated parallelepiped and cylindrical mesa array designs. This novel planar array design, which incorporates a guard ring is based upon 2500 planar cylindrically-shaped p-i-n detectors and was fabricated via dopant diffusion and ion implantation. The dopant-diffused arrays were successfully fabricated and tested using both 2 μm and 10 μm thick silicon-on-insulator substrates. TCAD modelling of the ion-implanted structure is presented which includes the electrostatic potential profile and the electric field distribution profile, showing possible avalanche signal multiplication around the n+ core of the microdosimeter. The alpha particle charge transient response was simulated to determine the charge collection at the sensitive region.

Cylindrical Silicon-on-Insulator Microdosimeter: Design, Fabrication and TCAD Modeling

A novel silicon-on-insulator (SOI) microdosimeter has been designed and fabricated using planar processing techniques to realise a device with a micron-scale well-defined sensitive volume. Cylindrical structures were employed to allow for an improved definition of the average chord length of the sensitive volume over that of previous elongated parallelepiped solid-state detector designs. The structures were manufactured on individual silicon mesas situated on top of a buried oxide insulating layer. The mesa design eliminated lateral charge diffusion. Two kinds of test structures were designed with sensitive region widths of 2 mum and 10 mum. In addition, an array of 900 cylindrical diodes was fabricated to increase the charge collection statistics. TCAD (Technology Computer Aided Design) modeling of the electrostatic potential and electric field profile of the cylindrical microdosimeter was carried out to obtain 3D potential and electric field profiles. The modeling revealed a radial electric field within the cylindrical-shaped sensitive volume with a 1/r dependence. While the electric field at the core of the cylindrical microdosimeter was not sufficiently high to induce avalanche signal multiplication, the higher electric field at the core should still assist in the measurement of low linear-energy transfer (LET) events.

Effects of the Counter Ion Valency on the Colloidal Interaction between Two Cylindrical Particles

In this study, the effects of counter ion valency of the electrolyte on the colloidal repulsion between two parallel cylindrical particles were investigated. Electrostatic interactions of the cylindrical particles were calculated with the variation of counter ion valency. To calculate the electrical repulsive energy working between these two cylindrical particles, Derjaguin approximation was applied. The electrostatic potential profiles were obtained numerically by solving nonlinear Poission-Boltzmann (P-B) equation and calculating middle point potential and repulsive energy working between interacting surfaces. The electrical potential and repulsive energy were influenced by counter ion valency, Debye length, and surface potential. The potential profile and middle point potential decayed with the counter ion valency due to the promoted shielding of electrical charge. On the while, the repulsive energy increased with the counter ion valency at a short separation distance. These behaviors of electrostatic interaction agreed with previous results on planar or spherical surfaces.

Off-axis electron holographic potential mapping across AlGaAs/AlAs/GaAs heterostructures

The electrostatic potential profile across AlGaAs/AlAs/GaAs heterostructures containing 1-μm-thick n-doped (or p-doped) AlGaAs layers is measured using off-axis electron holography. Simulations of the potential profiles assuming no unintentional impurities in the undoped regions of the samples show small discrepancies with experiment. Revised simulations reproduce the measurements accurately, when a p-layer with an 8.4×1011 cm−2 acceptor density is included at the buffer/substrate interface to simulate the presence of unintentional carbon impurities.

Distribution of Electrostatic Potential in a Gas−Solid Fluidized Bed and Measurement of Bed Level

A theory on the electrostatic charge distribution in gas−solid fluidized beds was proposed. It consists of an interpretation of the causes of bipolar charging, the charging mechanisms in the fluidized bed, and the relationship between charge distribution and particle-size distribution in fluidized beds. Experiments were performed in a three-dimensional column gas−solid fluidized bed to measure the electrostatic charge distribution. It was found that the electric field inside the bed was nonuniform. If there was a distinct interface between the dilute and dense phases, the voltage polarity would reverse near the bed level, resulting in a Z-shaped axial profile of potential. The heights where voltage polarity reversal happened rose with the increase of gas velocity and static bed height. It was also found that the electrostatic voltage rose with increasing radial distances from the axis of the column. To sum up, the voltage at any axial cross section of the bed showed double saddles, with bed level as the interface. Accordingly, three special zones to be emphasized were identified: distributor, stagnant, and bed level zones, of which the latter two have high voltages and are more readily disturbed by particle/wall adhesion and even wall sheets. Based on the characteristics of axial profile of electrostatic potential in the fluidized bed, a new technique that could successfully predict bed level was developed. Good agreement was observed between visual measurements of bed level and predictions by the electrostatic method, with maximum relative error of 4.08% and mean relative error of 2.02%.

Atomistic modeling of the electrostatic and transport properties of a simplified nanoscale field effect transistor

A first-principle model is proposed to study the electrostatic properties of a double-gated silicon slab of nano scale in the framework of density functional theory. The applied gate voltage is approximated as a variation of the electrostatic potential on the boundary of the supercell enclosing the system. With the electron density estimated by the real space Green’s functions, efficient multigrid and fast Fourier-Poisson solvers are employed to calculate the electrostatic potential from the charge density. In the representation of localized SIESTA linear combination of atomic orbitals, the Kohn-Sham equation is established and solved self-consistently for the wavefunction of the system in the local density approximation. The transmission for ballistic transport across the atomic silicon slab at small bias is calculated. The charge distribution and electrostatic potential profile in the silicon slab versus the gate voltage are then analyzed with the help of the equivalent capacitive model. Quantum confinement and short gate effects are observed and discussed.

Serial profiles of electrostatic potential in five New Mexico thunderstorms

Profiles of electric potential (V) integrated from balloon‐borne electric field (E) measurements are used to investigate the electrical evolution of thunderstorms over the mountains in central New Mexico. With sequential soundings through multiple storms, the time skew associated with obtaining V from a noninstantaneous sounding is also studied. The data show that a basic V profile, with a maximum above a minimum, forms in the early stage of the storm and is maintained throughout its mature stage. Series of soundings from individual storms show only a gradual evolution in the V profile from the early through the mature stage, as the extrema descend in altitude and become shallower and vertically closer together. More evolution occurs in the late stage, when the shape of the V profile reverses to have a minimum above a maximum. The 17 V(z) profiles from the mature stage of five different storms are also very similar in overall shape, suggesting that the basic shape is not significantly affected by differences in lightning flash rate among these storms. The findings indicate that the potential profile during a typical sounding in the mature stage is relatively stable, and the overall shape of the mature stage V profile does not change markedly on the time scale of a particular balloon sounding (10–30 min) through New Mexico mountain storms. Thus time‐skew problems in the V profiles are minor during a storm's mature stage.

Density functional study on the structural and thermodynamic properties of aqueous DNA-electrolyte solution in the framework of cell model

A density functional theory (DFT) in the framework of cell model is proposed to calculate the structural and thermodynamic properties of aqueous DNA-electrolyte solution with finite DNA concentrations. The hard-sphere contribution to the excess Helmholtz energy functional is derived from the modified fundamental measure theory, and the electrostatic interaction is evaluated through a quadratic functional Taylor expansion around a uniform fluid. The electroneutrality in the cell leads to a variational equation with a constraint. Since the reference fluid is selected to be a bulk phase, the Lagrange multiplier proves to be the potential drop across the cell boundary (Donnan potential). The ion profiles and electrostatic potential profiles in the cell are calculated from the present DFT-cell model. Our DFT-cell model gives better prediction of ion profiles than the Poisson-Boltzmann (PB)- or modified PB-cell models when compared to the molecular simulation data. The effects of polyelectrolyte concentration, ion size, and added-salt concentration on the electrostatic potential difference between the DNA surface and the cell boundary are investigated. The expression of osmotic coefficient is derived from the general formula of grand potential. The osmotic coefficients predicted by the DFT are lower than the PB results and are closer to the simulation results and experimental data.

Impact of Chemical and Structural Anisotropy on the Electrophoretic Mobility of Spherical Soft Multilayer Particles: The Case of Bacteriophage MS2

We report a theoretical investigation of the electrohydrodynamic properties of spherical soft particles composed of permeable concentric layers that differ in thickness, soft material density, chemical composition, and flow penetration degree. Starting from a recent numerical scheme developed for the computation of the direct-current electrophoretic mobility (μ) of diffuse soft bioparticles, the dependence of μ on the electrolyte concentration and solution pH is evaluated taking the known three-layered structure of bacteriophage MS2 as a supporting model system (bulk RNA, RNA-protein bound layer, and coat protein). The electrokinetic results are discussed for various layer thicknesses, hydrodynamic flow penetration degrees, and chemical compositions, and are discussed on the basis of the equilibrium electrostatic potential and hydrodynamic flow field profiles that develop within and around the structured particle. This study allows for identifying the cases where the electrophoretic mobility is a function of the inner structural and chemical specificity of the particle and not only of its outer surface properties. Along these lines, we demonstrate the general inapplicability of the notions of zeta potential (ζ) and surface charge for quantitatively interpreting electrokinetic data collected for such systems. We further shed some light on the physical meaning of the isoelectric point. In particular, numerical and analytical simulations performed on structured soft layers in indifferent electrolytic solution demonstrate that the isoelectric point is a complex ionic strength-dependent signature of the flow permeation properties and of the chemical and structural details of the particle. Finally, the electrophoretic mobilities of the MS2 virus measured at various ionic strength levels and pH values are interpreted on the basis of the theoretical formalism aforementioned. It is shown that the electrokinetic features of MS2 are to a large extent determined not only by the external proteic capsid but also by the chemical composition and hydrodynamic flow permeation of/within the inner RNA-protein bound layer and bulk RNA part of the bacteriophage. The impact of virus aggregation, as revealed by decreasing diffusion coefficients for decreasing pH values, is also discussed.

On Fractal Properties of Equipotentials over a Real Rough Surface Faced to Plasma in Fusion Devices

We consider a sheath region bounded by a corrugated surface of material conductor and a flat boundary held to a constant voltage bias. The real profile of the film deposited from plasma on a limiter in a fusion device was used in numerical solving of the Poisson's equation to find a profile of electrostatic potential. The rough surface influences the equipotential lines over the surface. We characterized a shape of equipotential lines by a fractal dimension. The long-range correlation in the potential field is imposed by the non-trivial fractal structure of the surface. Dust particles bounced in such irregular potential field can accelerate due to the Fermi acceleration.

Electrostatic Potential Measurement by Using 6-MeV Heavy Ion Beam Probe on LHD

A heavy ion beam probe (HIBP) using a 3 MV tandem accelerator was installed in Large Helical Device (LHD). It is designed to measure the electrostatic potential in the core region directly. It is calibrated and can be used to measure the electrostatic potential profiles in LHD plasmas. The radial electric field (Er) obtained from the potential profiles measured using the HIBP agrees with that measured by charge exchange spectroscopy (CXS). Er predicted by the neoclassical theory is also compared to that measured using the HIBP, and is in good agreement with the experimental results in the core region.

Analytical Description of Inversion-Layer Quantum Effects Using the Density Gradient Model and Singular Perturbation Theory

Analytical formulae for electrostatic potential and electron density profiles in the n-type planar metal oxide semiconductor field-effect-transistor inversion layer are presented. Equations based on the density gradient model are analytically solved using singular perturbation theory. The formulae give good agreement with exact numerical solutions over a broad range of voltages and device structures.

Reset Operation of Quantum-Well Infrared Phototransistors

An improved operation of charge-sensitive infrared (IR) phototransistor (CSIP) is demonstrated by adding a reset function. The phototransistor is fabricated in a GaAs/AlGaAs double quantum-well (QW) structure. The upper QW is lithographically defined to form an isolated island. Under IR illumination (lambda ~ 14 mum), excited electrons escape from the isolated QW island. The QW island is thereby positively charged up, which, in turn, causes the conductance through the lower QW to increase. The performance of the detector, however, was restricted by the reduction of sensitivity, which arises from a distortion in the electrostatic potential profile caused by the accumulation of positive charges on the upper QW island. This drawback is removed by introducing a front gate on a channel leading to the isolated QW island. Applying positive pulses (duration 1 mus) to the gate, neutralizes the isolated QW island and reset the CSIP to the highly sensitive state. Typically, a current responsivity on the order of ~104 A/W is realized along with a dynamical range as large as > 109.