Synthetic Natural Gas Production Research Articles

Synthetic natural gas production in a 1 kW reactor using Ni–Ce/Al2O3 and Ru–Ce/Al2O3: Kinetics, catalyst degradation and process design

Nickel and ruthenium promoted by ceria were compared as catalyst active phase for the production of synthetic natural gas in a 1 kW fixed-bed reactor (49 cm in length and 3 cm in diameter). Both catalysts were tested in a broad range of conditions: 250–450 °C, 8000–16000 h−1 GHSV, 3.5–5.5H2/CO2 ratio, and atmospheric pressure. The Ni-based catalyst presented higher CO2 conversion and lower reduction of BET area and metal dispersion after utilization. Two kinetic models were elaborated according to the performance of the catalysts in this reactor. The minimum mean squared error between the kinetic model and experiments was 3.0% for the Ru-based catalyst and 1.4% for the Ni-based catalyst. The kinetic model of the Ni-based catalyst was implemented in Aspen Plus to evaluate potential methanation plant designs. The simulation minimized the amount of catalyst required to reach 95 vol% of CH4, within proper technical limits (GHSV ≤ 5000 h−1 and temperature ≥ 300 °C). The 3-reactor plant was the most adequate configuration. The total catalyst mass was 3.26 kg per kg/h of SNG, the heat removed from the reactors was 10.8 MJ/kgSNG, and the preheating necessity was 4.90 MJ/kgSNG. The electrolysis energy consumption was 86.4 MJ/kgSNG.

Recent Advances on CO2 Mitigation Technologies: On the Role of Hydrogenation Route via Green H2

The increasing trend in global energy demand has led to an extensive use of fossil fuels and subsequently in a marked increase in atmospheric CO2 content, which is the main culprit for the greenhouse effect. In order to successfully reverse this trend, many schemes for CO2 mitigation have been proposed, taking into consideration that large-scale decarbonization is still infeasible. At the same time, the projected increase in the share of variable renewables in the future energy mix will necessitate large-scale curtailment of excess energy. Collectively, the above crucial problems can be addressed by the general scheme of CO2 hydrogenation. This refers to the conversion of both captured CO2 and green H2 produced by RES-powered water electrolysis for the production of added-value chemicals and fuels, which are a great alternative to CO2 sequestration and the use of green H2 as a standalone fuel. Indeed, direct utilization of both CO2 and H2 via CO2 hydrogenation offers, on the one hand, the advantage of CO2 valorization instead of its permanent storage, and the direct transformation of otherwise curtailed excess electricity to stable and reliable carriers such as methane and methanol on the other, thereby bypassing the inherent complexities associated with the transformation towards a H2-based economy. In light of the above, herein an overview of the two main CO2 abatement schemes, Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) and Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU), is firstly presented, focusing on the route of CO2 hydrogenation by green electrolytic hydrogen. Next, the integration of large-scale RES-based H2 production with CO2 capture units on-site industrial point sources for the production of added-value chemicals and energy carriers is contextualized and highlighted. In this regard, a specific reference is made to the so-called Power-to-X schemes, exemplified by the production of synthetic natural gas via the Power-to-Gas route. Lastly, several outlooks towards the future of CO2 hydrogenation are presented.

A novel system for electricity and synthetic natural gas production from captured CO2: Techno-economic evaluation and multi-objective optimization

To mitigate global warming and fossil fuel shortages a novel oxy-fuel combustion power plant integrated with a power to gas system is proposed. A net-zero emission MATIANT cycle with inherent CO2 capture ability is selected as the power cycle also providing the CO2 and power demand of the power to gas system, which comprises a proton exchange membrane electrolyzer for hydrogen production and a Sabatier reactor for methanation. A techno-economic investigation, a multi-objective optimization, and a sensitivity analysis are carried out. A comprehensive economic method that covers all economic aspects is utilized, and a Sabatier reactor model which considers the possibility of the presence of solid carbon is employed to ensure the practicality of the investigations. It is shown that, when the multi-objective optimization maximizes the net power produced by the system with the lowest possible payback period, 95,700 kW of net power production with a 4.0 year payback period are obtainable. For the objectives of maximum LHV of synthetic natural gas and minimum payback period, a value of LHV of 31,200 kJ/kg with a 3.9 year payback period is attained. Finally, when the objectives are maximizing the produced power while keeping the LHV as high as possible, the net power production and LHV values are 96,200 kW and 31,300 kJ/kg, respectively. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the net power generated by the system and payback period are more sensitive to combustion temperature and high pressure turbine outlet pressure, while the sensitivity of LHV to methanation pressure ratio is high.

Entire process simulation and thermodynamic analysis of the catalytic gasification for synthetic natural gas from biomass

One-step catalytic gasification is an emerging technology for the production of synthetic natural gas (SNG). However, limited information is available regarding the process simulation and system analysis of the entire process from the system level. In this study, an entire process model of catalytic gasification for SNG production was developed, and the corresponding process optimization and energy and exergy analyses were conducted. To achieve high methane production, the gasifier should be operated at a gasification temperature ≤1023.15 K, gasification pressure ≥30 atm, and water-bagasse ratio ≈0.35. Under the typical catalytic gasification conditions (973.15 K and 35 atm), the molar fraction of methane and the high heat value of the final SNG were 87.7% and 36.44 MJ/Nm3, respectively. The highest energy and exergy inputs, 50.72% and 50.03%, respectively, were derived from the methanol employed in gas purification. The second highest energy and exergy inputs, 38.31% and 40.63%, respectively, were derived from bagasse. The total irreversible exergy loss accounted for 8.22% of the total exergy output, which was mainly consumed in catalytic gasification and gas purification at proportions of 69.0% and 29.02%, respectively. The total energy and exergy efficiencies of the entire process were 34.64% and 33.91%, respectively.

Economic and Technical Analysis of Power to Gas Factory Taking Karamay as an Example

Power to gas (PTG) refers to the technology of converting power into energy-storage gas, which can absorb excess power when there is excess power and release energy-storage gas when needed. Based on the carbon dioxide (CO2) emission of Karamay City in Northwest China, this study designed a process flow of the CO2 absorption process, and the hydrogen and CO2 methanation process, in PTG technology. The results show that the efficiency of the CO2 absorption process was 91.5%, and the methanation efficiency was 77.5%. The heat recovery module was set during the process, and the total heat recovered was 17.85 MW. The cost of producing synthetic natural gas (SNG) in the PTG factory was 1782 USD/ton. In terms of cost, the cost of hydrogen production from electrolyzed water accounted for the largest proportion. In terms of product profit, the sale of pure oxygen was the largest part of the profit. At present, the carbon emission reduction index profit brought by SNG production accounted for a small proportion. In the future, with technological progress, industrial upgrading and the improvement in the carbon trading market, PTG technology is expected to become one of the ways to achieve carbon-emission-reduction targets.

Techno-economical modelling of a power-to-gas system for plant configuration evaluation in a local context

Decarbonisation of the European energy networks is critical to meet Commission targets in the coming decades. The presented study aims to contribute to this by analysing one of the proposed solutions: power-to-gas. A techno-economic model is created for the purposes of evaluating specific projects on their feasibility in terms of local constraints and opportunities, using a current project as a template for model generation and analysing different possible configurations in 8 operational scenarios. Five metrics were used for scenario analysis: levelized cost of methane, minimum selling price, operational hours, hydrogen tank size and capital cost. The results from the analysis indicate that, in terms of the stated project, synthetic natural gas production and grid injection along with on-site mobility applications provide the best economical result. However, selling prices of synthetic natural gas obtained are one magnitude higher than current natural gas prices, indicating government support is required for further development. Future projections of electrolyser efficiency and equipment capital costs will greatly reduce production costs, giving promise for feasible business cases in the coming years.

Sorption-enhanced CO and CO2 methanation (SEM) for the production of high purity methane

Sorption-enhanced methanation (SEM) is one of the solutions proposed for the production of high quality synthetic natural gas (SNG) under mild conditions of temperature and pressure. In this novel process, the methanation reaction is performed in the presence of an adsorbent that retains the water produced as by-product. The SEM potential of a Rh-based catalyst and a zeolite 5A adsorbent has been demonstrated for both CO and CO2 hydrogenation. Pure CH4 production was possible operating at 275 °C and atmospheric pressure under sorption-enhanced CO2 methanation conditions for space velocities of up to 514 mlCO2/gcat/h. For sorption-enhanced CO methanation, CH4 purities of 86 vol% were achieved under the same operating conditions but at lower space velocity (440 mlCO/gcat/h). Finally, SEM/regeneration cycles were performed for a feed gas containing CO and CO2, achieving stable performance throughout the cycles and a constant CH4 purity of about 60 vol% for the operating conditions chosen.

Enhanced CO2 Methanation Activity of Sm0.25Ce0.75O2-δ-Ni by Modulating the Chelating Agents-to-Metal Cation Ratio and Tuning Metal-Support Interactions.

Highly active and selective CO2 methanation catalysts are critical to CO2 upgrading, synthetic natural gas production, and CO2 emission reduction. Wet impregnation is widely used to synthesize oxide-supported metallic nanoparticles as the catalyst for CO2 methanation. However, as the reagents cannot be homogeneously mixed at an atomic level, it is challenging to modulate the microstructure, crystal structure, chemical composition, and electronic structure of catalysts via wet impregnation. Herein, a scalable and straightforward catalyst fabrication approach has been designed and validated to produce Sm0.25Ce0.75O2-δ-supported Ni (SDC-Ni) as the CO2 methanation catalyst. By varying the chelating agents-to-total metal cations ratio (C/I ratio) during the catalyst synthesis, we can readily and simultaneously modulate the microstructure, metallic surface area, crystal structure, chemical composition, and electronic structure of SDC-Ni, consequently fine-tuning the oxide-support interactions and CO2 methanation activity. The optimal C/I ratio (0.1) leads to an SDC-Ni catalyst that facilitates C-O bond cleavage and significantly improves CO2 conversion at 250 °C. A CO2-to-CH4 yield of >73% has been achieved at 250 °C. Furthermore, a stable operation of >1500 hours has been demonstrated, and no degradation is observed. Extensive characterizations were performed to fundamentally understand how to tune and enhance CO2 methanation activity of SDC-Ni by modulating the C/I ratio. The correlation of physical, chemical, and catalytic properties of SDC-Ni with the C/I ratio is established and thoroughly elaborated in this work. This study could be applied to tune the oxide-support interactions of various catalysts for enhancing the catalytic activity.

Environmental impacts of the production of synthetic natural gas from industrial carbon dioxide

Power-to-Gas technologies (PtG) are regarded as promising options to defossilize the energy system by converting and storing renewable electricity to gases. When combined with carbon capture and utilization from large point sources, such as energy intensive and hard-to-abate sectors, where a major part of CO 2 emissions cannot be avoided, PtG technologies can also play a role to mitigate CO 2 emissions. However, these technologies have several environmental impacts throughout their lifetimes that must be assessed, due to the use of resources, materials, and energy, as well as the formation of chemical by-products. Using a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology, this paper aims to assess the most significant environmental impacts of an integrated PtG system including the conversion of renewable energy to hydrogen through water wind-based electrolysis, that is further converted to synthetic natural gas (SNG) by reacting with captured CO 2 from a cement plant flue gas. More precisely, the present work innovates on both the technical and methodological perspectives. An advanced CO 2 capture process is implemented, using mixed amines solvent and innovative configuration to reduce the energy consumption to 2.3 GJ per tCO 2 captured, and include an optimized heat integration with the CO 2 conversion step. A hybrid approach combining physical and economic input data is also considered for the life cycle inventory. Additionally, both subdivision and system expansion via substitution approaches are applied to consider the multi-functionality of the systems. Simulation results show that the PtG process with CO 2 captured from cement plants flue gas reduces the overall GHG emissions by 76%. Similarly, the fossil resource scarcity is drastically reduced by over 80% thanks to the heat integration between the CO 2 capture and the CO 2 conversion processes, but also thanks to the substitution of natural gas by the CO 2 -based SNG. Nevertheless, environmental impacts of PtG are higher than conventional natural gas production for other impact categories, including freshwater eutrophication, terrestrial acidification, and mineral resource scarcity. Both data uncertainties, assessing the knowledge base underlying the input data parameters, and sensitivity analysis, assessing the value range of the parameters respectively to the environmental indicators, are conducted to test the results and highlight the uncertainty hotspots.

Holistic View on Synthetic Natural Gas Production: A Technical, Economic and Environmental Analysis

Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) is the most researched option for a Power-to-Fuel pathway in Germany after hydrogen, having the advantage of being compatible with the existing infrastructure. However, it is not clear under which conditions SNG is economically and environmentally advantageous compared to natural gas usage, since this is determined by a complex interplay of many factors. This study analyzes the technical, economic and environmental aspects of a pilot SNG plant to determine the key parameters for profitable and sustainable operation. The SNG plant was simulated in Aspen Plus® with CO2 from biogas production as a feedstock and with hydrogen provided by a 1 MWel electrolyzer unit. A life cycle analysis (LCA) was undertaken considering several impact categories with a special focus on global warming potential (GWP). An SNG cost of 0.33–4.22 €/kWhth was calculated, depending on factors such as operational hours, electricity price and type of electrolyzer. It was found that the CO2 price has a negligible effect on the SNG cost, while the electricity is the main cost driver. This shows that significant cost reductions will be needed for SNG to be competitive with natural gas. For the investigated scenarios, a CO2 tax of at least 1442 €/t was determined, calling for more drastic measures. Considering the global warming potential, only an operation with an emission factor of electricity below 121 g CO2-eq/kWhel leads to a reduction in emissions. This demonstrates that unless renewable energies are implemented at a much higher rate than predicted, no sustainable SNG production before 2050 will be possible in Germany.

Sorption-enhanced gasification - Analysis of process parameters impact on the system's operation with a dual fluidised bed model

Sorption-enhanced gasification (SEG) is a promising technology for synthetic biofuel production from biomass. A semi-empirical 1-dimensional dual fluidised bed (DFB) model for the SEG process with coupled bubbling fluidised bed and circulating fluidised bed is developed. The model is used to analyse the operation of a pilot-scale adiabatic DFB system. A study of the gasifier operation temperature's influence on the system's mass and energy balances in the range of 650 °C–775 °C was conducted. In addition, an effect of the gasifier's steam-to-carbon (S/C) ratio on the system's mass and energy balances and producer gas composition in the range of 700 °C–775 °C was investigated for the production of synthetic biofuels. The model gave a good prediction for producer composition against experimental studies. The results show the effect of gasifier temperature and S/C ratio on the mass and energy balances of the system. The variation of the main parameters showed processes suitability for the production of dimethyl ether, methanol and synthetic natural gas. The simulations improved the understanding of the SEG processes physical operation. The knowledge of the system's operation is valuable in reactor system design and the development of the system's efficient operation ways for synthetic biofuel production.

Structural effect of Ni/TiO2 on CO methanation: improved activity and enhanced stability.

CO methanation over a supported Ni catalyst has attracted increasing attention for its applications in synthetic natural gas production, CO removal for ammonia synthesis and fuel cells, among others. However, the deactivation of the Ni catalyst caused by sintering and carbon deposition hinders further application of the Ni catalyst. The activity of Ni catalysts needs further improvement as well. In this work, the structural effect of the Ni/TiO2 catalyst on CO methanation was investigated. A plasma decomposition, initiated at room temperature and operated around 150 °C, of the nickel precursor was applied to prepare the catalyst. Compared to the thermally decomposed Ni/TiO2 catalyst, the plasma-decomposed catalyst shows improved activity with enhanced stability. The catalyst characterization shows that the plasma-decomposed Ni/TiO2 catalyst possesses smaller Ni particle size and higher Ni dispersion, resulting in improved coke resistance and enhanced anti-sintering ability for CO methanation. The present study confirms that a catalyst with good activity for CO methanation possesses good activity for CO2 methanation as well, if the CO2 methanation takes the CO methanation pathway.

Techno-economic assessment of synthetic natural gas (SNG) production through improved carbon utilization from biomass

Techno-economic assessment of synthetic natural gas (SNG) production through improved carbon utilization from biomass

CFD-aided conceptual design of an intensified reactor for the production of synthetic natural gas within the power-to-methane context

The spread of renewable sources has boosted the emerging Power-to-Methane (PtM) concept as an attractive strategy for turning surplus power into Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG). PtM is founded on CO2 methanation, a highly exothermic process that renders appropriate heat management challenging in conventional reactors. Hence Process Intensification (PI) may provide a breakthrough. This contribution presents a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)-aided conceptual design of a heat-exchanger wall-coated methanation reactor. The design is based on a reactor formed by single-pass stacked plates comprising a reacting network of multiple channels coated with NiAl(O)x. The reactor is evaluated at industrially relevant operating conditions with an undiluted stoichiometric feed. A 3-D reaction channel is parametrised to define a design point that guarantees a minimum CO2 conversion of 95%, maximising throughput without hot spot formation. The plate manifold is 2-D dimensioned to keep an even flow distribution as a function of the number of channels. The entire stacked plate is 3-D simulated to corroborate the findings of former design stages and discuss the effect of the length of the channels on reactor performance. The proposed conceptual design sets a feasible PI base case to overcome the shortcomings of conventional reactors for PtM applications.

A review on recent bimetallic catalyst development for synthetic natural gas production via CO methanation

CO methanation has arisen as an attractive research area due to its ability to transform syngas into substituted natural gas. Current monometallic catalysts have a severe problem; quickly deactivated. It is generally known that by introducing another metal to create a bimetallic catalyst, synergistic interaction between both metals considerably enhances catalyst effectiveness. This paper provides a detailed overview of bimetallic catalysts for CO methanation, covering its synthesis method and effect on physicochemical characteristics. The bimetallic catalyst can both reinforce or weaken the metal-support and metal-metal interaction, which weakening it favors reducibility while reinforcing it favors stability. Particle size and dispersion also improve, whereas adding lanthanides can increases the basicity. We also present the mechanism of CO methanation over the bimetallic catalyst, which modifies the mechanism's energy and rate value. This review provides insights on how reaction effectiveness is enhanced, enabling catalyst development with the highest possible performance.

A Circular Approach to Upgrade Cement-based CO2 and Renewable H2: Techno-economic Analysis of SNG Production

The present work introduces a feasible, carbon-free integrated process that is based on the catalytic hydrogenation of industrially captured CO2 via green H2 towards the production of synthetic natural gas (SNG). Overall, three systems are being assessed from an economic point of view (sizing and simulation through Aspen Plus and HOMER software): a) H2 production through a combination of renewable energy sources (RES) and water electrolysis, b) cement-based CO2 capture through amines in a continuous absorption/regeneration cycle and c) CO2 catalytic hydrogenation. The basis for the process simulation and the subsequent economic analysis lies on the exploitation of 1,400 kt/y CO2 that are emitted from a typical cement industrial plant. According to this capacity, the integrated system is assessed for a yearly SNG production rate of ~500 kt/y. As was derived from the screening of different market exploitation scenarios (e.g., funding options, increase of CO2 tariffs), a sustainable and feasible solution can be achieved (based on current market values), as long as the RES-H2 system is funded by up to ~35 % or CO2 penalty costs reach levels of >140 €/t in the near future.

3D Unsteady Simulation of a Scale-Up Methanation Reactor with Interconnected Cooling Unit

The production of synthetic natural gas (SNG) via methanation has been demonstrated by experiments in bench scale bubbling fluidized bed reactors. In the current work, we focus on the scale-up of the methanation reactor, and a circulating fluidized bed (CFB) is designed with variable diameter according to the characteristic of methanation. The critical issue is the removal of reaction heat during the strongly exothermic process of the methanation. As a result, an interconnected bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) is utilized and connected with the reactor in order to cool the particles and to maintain system temperature. A 3D model is built, and the influences of operating temperature on H2, CO conversion and CH4 yield are evaluated by numerical simulations. The instantaneous and time-averaged flow behaviors are obtained and analyzed. It turns out that the products with high concentrations of CH4 are received at the CFB reactor outlet. The temperature of the system is kept under control by using a cooling unit, and the steady state of thermal behavior is achieved under the cooling effect of BFB reactor. The circulating rate of particles and the cooling power of the BFB reactor significantly affect the performance of reactor. This investigation provides insight into the design and operation of a scale-up methanation reactor, and the feasibility of the CFB reactor for the methanation process is confirmed.

Determining the optimal process configurations for Synthetic Natural Gas production by analysing the cost factors

Producing Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) via Power-to-Gas (PtG) is favourable for two reasons; it can be substituted for natural gas in the gas network, and it enables CO2 recycling as energy systems transition towards a low-carbon future. However, the expensive SNG production process is a barrier to being cost-competitive with other market gases. Several diverse factors influence SNG production cost, which results in several possible process configurations with varying performance which influence it. The hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) required to produce SNG are available from multiple sources, while the SNG production cost is also influenced by the capital investment required for PtG process units, interim storage facilities, and operating expenses. Hence, an in-depth analysis of the factors affecting SNG production is required to understand their effect on the cost and to provide information on cost savings, economic implications, and optimal SNG production setup for decision-makers.In this paper, an optimisation algorithm is developed to model the PtG process units. The main objective of this work is to determine optimal process configurations for SNG production by analysing its influencing cost factors. A factorial design approach is integrated into the optimisation process to minimise the production cost by choosing the cost-effective process configurations. This work also determines the factors with a significant influence on the production cost using an ANOVA. The algorithm identifies the cost-effective H2 and CO2 source to obtain the least expensive SNG production setup. Based on the values of the cost factors, strategies for lowering the production cost in an existing setup are identified. The factors with the most influence on the SNG production cost are the capacity and capex of the methanator unit

A CFD Design Approach for Industrial Size Tubular Reactors for SNG Production from Biogas (CO2 Methanation)

A tubular reactor based on the disk and doughnut concept was designed as an engineering solution for biogas upgrading via CO2 methanation. CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) benchmarks agreed well with experimental and empirical (correlation) data, giving a maximum error of 8.5% and 20% for the chemical reaction and heat transfer models, respectively. Likewise, hot spot position was accurately predicted, with a 5% error. The methodology was used to investigate the effect of two commercially available coolants (thermal oil and molten salts) on overall reactor performance through a parametric study involving four coolant flow rates. Although molten salts did show higher heat transfer coefficients at lower coolant rates, 82% superior, it also increases, by five times, the pumping power. A critical coolant flow rate (3.5 m3/h) was found, which allows both a stable thermal operation and optimum pumping energy consumption. The adopted coolant flow range remains critical to guarantee thermal design validity in correlation-based studies. Due to the disk and doughnut configuration, coolant flow remains uniform, promoting turbulence (Re ≈ 14,000 at doughnut outlet) and maximizing heat transfer at hot spot. Likewise, baffle positioning was found critical to accommodate and reduce stagnant zones, improving the heat transfer. Finally, a reactor design is presented for SNG (Synthetic Natural Gas) production from a 150 Nm3 h−1 biogas plant.

Techno-Economic Assessment of Thermally Integrated Co-Electrolysis and Methanation for Industrial Closed Carbon Cycles

Energy-intensive industries still produce high amounts of non-renewable CO2 emissions. These emissions cannot easily be fully omitted in the short- and mid-term by electrification or switching to renewable energy carriers, as they either are of inevitable origin (e.g., mineral carbon in cement production) or require a long-term transition of well-established process chains (e.g., metal ore reduction). Therefore, carbon capture and utilization (CCU) has been widely discussed as an option to reduce net CO2 emissions. In this context, the production of synthetic natural gas (SNG) through power-to-methane (PtM) process is expected to possess considerable value in future energy systems. Considering current low-temperature electrolysis technologies that exhibit electric efficiencies of 60–70%el, LHV and methanation with a caloric efficiency of 82.5%LHV, the conventional PtM route is inefficient. However, overall efficiencies of >80%el, LHV could be achieved using co-electrolysis of steam and CO2 in combination with thermal integration of waste heat from methanation. The present study investigates the techno-economic performance of such a thermally integrated system in the context of different application scenarios that allow for the establishment of a closed carbon cycle. Considering potential technological learning and scaling effects, the assessments reveal that compared to that of decoupled low-temperature systems, SNG generation cost of <10 c€/kWh could be achieved. Additional benefits arise from the direct utilization of by-products oxygen in the investigated processes. With the ability to integrate renewable electricity sources such as wind or solar power in addition to grid supply, the system can also provide grid balancing services while minimizing operational costs. Therefore, the implementation of highly-efficient power-to-gas systems for CCU applications is identified as a valuable option to reduce net carbon emissions for hard-to-abate sectors. However, for mid-term economic viability over fossils intensifying of regulatory measures (e.g., CO2 prices) and the intense use of synergies is considered mandatory.