Production Of Peracetic Acid Research Articles

Efficacy of Peracetic Acid and Sodium Hypochlorite against SARS-CoV-2 on Contaminated Surfaces.

SARS-CoV-2 is primarily a respiratory virus that can potentially be transmitted through fomites. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and peracetic acid (PAA) are widely used disinfectants on surfaces in diverse settings such as hospitals and food production facilities. The objectives of this study were to investigate the virucidal efficacy of NaOCl and PAA against SARS-CoV-2 using the ASTM standard methods. In the suspension assay, NaOCl and PAA (5, 50, and 200 ppm) were tested against SARS-CoV-2 in the presence/absence of soil load after 1 min of contact time. In the carrier assay, NaOCl and PAA were tested at 200, 400, 600, and 1,000 ppm for 1 min and 200 and 1,000 ppm for 5 and 10 min. Stainless steel (SS) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) disks were used as carriers. The virus was suspended in soil load and the disinfectants were prepared in 300 ppm of hard water. Virus quantification was done by TCID50 assay using Vero-E6 cell line. NaOCl and PAA were effective (> 3 log reduction in infectious virus) at 50 ppm in the absence of soil load. However, in the presence of soil load, 200 ppm was required for > 3 log reduction in virus infectivity. In contrast, NaOCl and PAA at 200 ppm and with a 1-min contact time were not effective against SARS-CoV-2 on either SS or HDPE surfaces. PAA at 200 ppm for 10 min was effective against SARS-CoV-2 on SS and HDPE surfaces, whereas NaOCl required 1,000 ppm for 10 min to be effective against SARS-CoV-2 on both surfaces. IMPORTANCE In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended the use of chlorine-based products such as sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) at 1,000 ppm for a minimum of 1 min to disinfect environmental surfaces. However, this recommendation was not based on validated studies on the actual SARS-CoV-2 itself. In fact, over half of the chemical disinfectants, including many peracetic acid products, listed in EPA List N were approved based on "kills a harder-to-kill pathogen" without further validation on SARS-CoV-2. Research on SARS-CoV-2 is restricted to BSL3 laboratories and the urgency of tackling the pandemic might explain the lack of studies on the actual virus. Our results show that the WHO recommendation of 1 min contact time with 1,000 ppm NaOCl is not effective against SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces. Also, our results indicate that PAA is effective against SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces and can be used as safer and more environmentally friendly alternative to NaOCl at a lower concentration.

Kinetic and equilibrium analysis of peracetic acid formation at 1753 cm−1 mid‐infrared absorption peak using facile attenuated total reflection Fourier transform Infrared technique

AbstractIntroductionPeracetic acid (PAA) is a highly effective disinfectant against a wide range of viruses and bacteria. Its versatility, cost‐effectiveness, and ability to quickly decontaminate large areas make it an ideal choice. PAA is also environmentally friendly and safe, as it does not produce any harmful by‐products. However, to ensure its efficacy, it is crucial to maintain the optimal concentration of PAA in the solution.ObjectiveThe objective of the study is to investigate the use of attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR‐FTIR) spectroscopy as a method for quantifying the concentration of peracetic acid (PAA), which comes in quaternary equilibrium mixture in commercial formulation. The study also aims to determine the rate constants and equilibrium constant for the production of PAA in various conditions, including the presence of catalyst and stabilizer.MethodsThe spectra of all chemicals in PAA solution obtained in FT‐IR Spectrometer were compared to identify the characteristic peaks of PAA, which were then computed using normal mode analysis at B3LYP/6‐31G(d) level by Gaussian 09. The ATR‐FTIR was used to measure time‐dependent PAA signals until they reached equilibrium in three different conditions: (1) Acetic acid (10 to 17.4 M) and hydrogen peroxide (5 M), (2) with sulfuric acid as catalyst, and (3) with phosphoric acid as stabilizer. The collected data was analyzed through regression analysis, in which curves and rate law formulas were fitted to obtain the rate constants for peracetic acid synthesis and hydrolysis.ResultsThis study shows that ATR‐FTIR spectroscopy can detect and quantify peracetic acid with a characteristic peak at 1753 cm−1. The proposed method is applicable to all peracetic acid solutions, including those with stabilizers and catalysts. The ATR‐FTIR method offers advantages such as short detection time, simple operation, small sampling volume, and accurate measurement. Moreover, the accuracy of this quantitative method is confirmed by the fact that the reaction rate constants deduced from the fitted curves are more consistent with the actual reaction rate constants than those of the reference data based on KI titration method.

Regulation of the molecular repertoires of oxidative stress response in the gills and olfactory organ of Atlantic salmon following infection and treatment of the parasite Neoparameoba perurans

The present study investigated the involvement of key molecular regulators of oxidative stress in amoebic gill disease (AGD), a parasitic infestation in Atlantic salmon. In addition, the study evaluated how these molecular biomarkers responded when AGD-affected fish were exposed to a candidate chemotherapeutic peracetic acid (PAA). Atlantic salmon were experimentally infected with the parasite Neoparameoba perurans, the causative agent of AGD, by bath exposure and after 2 weeks, the fish were treated with three commercial PAA products (i.e., Perfectoxid, AquaDes and ADDIAqua) at a dose of 5 ppm. Two exposure durations were evaluated – 30 min and 60 min. Sampling was performed 24 h and 2 weeks after PAA treatment (equivalent to 2- and 4-weeks post infection). At each sampling point, the following parameters were evaluated: gross gill pathology, gill parasitic load, plasma reactive oxygen species (ROS) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC), histopathology and gene expression profiling of genes with key involvement in oxidative stress in the gills and olfactory organ. AGD did not result in systemic oxidative stress as ROS and TAC levels remained unchanged. There were no clear patterns of AGD-mediated regulation of the oxidative stress biomarkers in both the gills and olfactory organ; significant changes in the expression were mostly related to time rather than infection status. However, the expression profiles of the oxidative stress biomarkers in AGD-affected salmon, following treatment with PAA, revealed that gills and olfactory organ responded differently – upregulation was prominent in the gills while downregulation was more frequent in the olfactory organ. The expression of catalase, glutathione S-transferase and thioredoxin reductase 2 was significantly affected by the treatments, both in the gills and olfactory organ, and these alterations were influenced by the duration of exposure and PAA product type. Parasitic load in the gills did significantly increase after treatment regardless of the product and exposure duration; the parasite was undetectable in some fish treated with AquaDes for 30 mins. However, PAA treated groups for 30 min showed lower macroscopic gill scores than the infected-untreated fish. Histology disclosed the classic pathological findings such as multifocal hyperplasia and increased number of mucous cells in AGD-affected fish. Microscopic scoring of gill injuries showed that AGD-infected-PAA-treated fish had lower scores, however, an overall trend could not be established. The morphology and structural integrity of the olfactory organ were not significantly altered by parasitism or PAA treatment. Collectively, the results indicate that AGD did not affect the systemic and mucosal oxidative status of Atlantic salmon. However, such a striking profile was changed when AGD-affected fish were exposed to oxidative chemotherapeutics. Moreover, the gills and olfactory organ demonstrated distinct patterns of gene expression of oxidative stress biomarkers in AGD-infected-PAA-treated fish. Lastly, PAA treatment did not fully resolve the infection, but appeared not to worsen the mucosal health either.

Decay of peracetic acid in seawater and implications for its chemotherapeutic potential in aquaculture

Peracetic acid (PAA) is a widely applied disinfectant in aquaculture. Knowledge on PAA decay in seawater (SW) is crucial for its successful implementation in SW aquaculture systems. We investigated the decay dynamics of PAA in SW under controlled conditions to assess the potential effect of temperature, salinity and light. We also applied PAA to 22 tanks with post-smolt Atlantic salmonSalmo salarin full-strength SW (33‰) over a realistic range of therapeutic concentrations (0.15-4.8 mg l-1) to simulate relevant treatment scenarios. The study showed that PAA degrades rapidly in SW. The degradation follows exponential first-order decay with half-lives on the order of minutes to hours. Salinity and temperature significantly affected the decay of PAA, showing a 4-fold faster decay rate in full-strength SW compared to freshwater. The decay of PAA was not significantly related to the nominal concentration of PAA in the concentration range tested. The other 2 active ingredients in PAA products, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and acetic acid, were found to degrade at a much slower rate. H2O2half-lives in SW were found to range from 15 to 70 h, and minimal acetate was found to be degraded when added to SW. Finally, we compiled published data on PAA decay in relevant water matrices and discussed the potential environmental impacts, mitigation options and future research.

Description and evaluation of a peracetic acid air sampling and analysis method.

Peracetic acid (PAA) is a corrosive chemical with a pungent odor, which is extensively used in occupational settings and causes various health hazards in exposed workers. Currently, there is no US government agency recommended method that could be applied universally for the sampling and analysis of PAA. Legacy methods for determining airborne PAA vapor levels frequently suffered from cross-reactivity with other chemicals, particularly hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Therefore, to remove the confounding factor of cross-reactivity, a new viable, sensitive method was developed for assessment of PAA exposure levels, based on the differential reaction kinetics of PAA with methyl p-tolylsulfide (MTS), relative to H2O2, to preferentially derive methyl p-tolysulfoxide (MTSO). By quantifying MTSO concentration produced in the liquid capture solution from an air sampler, using an internal standard, and utilizing the reaction stoichiometry of PAA and MTS, the original airborne concentration of PAA is determined. After refining this liquid trap high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method in the laboratory, it was tested in five workplace settings where PAA products were used. PAA levels ranged from the detection limit of 0.013 parts per million (ppm) to 0.4 ppm. The results indicate a viable and potentially dependable method to assess the concentrations of PAA vapors under occupational exposure scenarios, though only a small number of field measurements were taken while field testing this method. However, the low limit of detection and precision offered by this method makes it a strong candidate for further testing and validation to expand the uses of this liquid trap HPLC method.

Integration of anodic and cathodic processes for the synergistic electrochemical production of peracetic acid

Efficient in-situ production of peracetic acid is an unreached milestone of electrochemical engineering. Previous attempts in the production of peracetic acid were focused either on the cathodic production of hydrogen peroxide and its further addition to acetic acid solutions or on the oxidation of a suitable raw material (v. g. acetic acid, acetaldehyde, ethanol). In the present work, the oxidation of acetic acid by a boron doped diamond (BDD) anode was integrated with the cathodic production of hydrogen peroxide using a carbon felt gas diffusion electrode. A marked synergistic effect (synergy coefficient of 192.0±13.1%) is observed when the oxidation of acetic acid by hydroxyl radicals is performed together with the cathodic production of hydrogen peroxide. A maximum PAA production efficiency of 19.87% was obtained, a value much higher than previous works based on the oxidation of acetic acid by BDD anodes and approximately double the optimal value reported in studies based on the production of hydrogen peroxide.

Peracetic acid is a suitable disinfectant for recirculating fish-microalgae integrated multi-trophic aquaculture systems

Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) is a promising direction for the sustainable development of aquaculture. Microalgae have good potential to be integrated with recirculating aquaculture systems because they can use the nitrogen excreted from fish and share the same optimal pH value as in aquaculture. As a byproduct, the microalgae biomass can be used for fish feed or biofuel. However, the recirculating fish-microalgae IMTA system is under constant threat from fish pathogens and phytoplankton-lytic bacteria. Therefore, it is necessary to apply proper disinfectants as prophylaxis or treatment which are effective against these threats, but safe to fish and microalgae. For this purpose, peracetic acid (PAA) is a valid option because it is highly effective against fish pathogens and bacteria at low concentrations and degrades spontaneously to harmless residues. In the present study, we exposed the culture of a marine microalgae Tetraselmis chuii once per day for four days to four PAA products with differing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)/PAA proportions at two concentrations (1 and 2mgL−1 PAA). The H2O2 solutions at equivalent total peroxide (H2O2+PAA) concentrations were tested in parallel. The results show that the growth and photosynthesis of T. chuii were not affected by three of the PAA products (Wofasteril® E400, Wofasteril® E250 and Applichem® 150) and equivalent H2O2 solutions at both concentrations. In contrast, Wofasteril® Lspez and an equivalent H2O2 solution at both concentrations caused irreversible culture collapse, photosynthesis dysfunction and irreversible cell damage. In conclusion, PAA products with low proportions of H2O2 are optimal disinfectants for fish-microalgae IMTA systems.

Efficient production of peracetic acid in aqueous solution with cephalosporin-deacetylating acetyl xylan esterase from Bacillus subtilis

Peracetic acid (PAA) is widely used in sterilization, bleaching textile industry, environmental engineering, chemical synthesis, and biomimetic chemistry. A previous study reported that acetyl xylan esterase (AXE) of Bacillus subtilis CICC 20034 has high activity toward cephalosporin C and 7-aminocephalosporanic acid. In this study, we found that AXE also exhibited high perhydrolysis activity toward acetate esters and endowed itself with great industrial interest on enzyme-catalyzed preparation of PAA. Recombinant AXE of B. subtilis CICC 20034 could be efficiently produced in a low-cost autoinduction medium with an activity of 6.8×103U/mL. The reaction conditions for the optimal synthesis of PAA were as follows: 0.30mg/mL AXE crude enzyme, 300mM glycerol triacetate, and 1M hydrogen peroxide, pH 8.0, and 20°C, which produced approximately 150mM of PAA within 5min. The AXE was then immobilized on an acrylate amino resin; the activity of the immobilized AXE was 383.7U/g. In the presence of 1g/mL of immobilized AXE resin, PAA titer of the initial reaction batch was approximately 142.5mM, and about 95.5mM of PAA could be produced after 10 cycles.

Growth inhibition of Aeromonas salmonicida and Yersinia ruckeri by disinfectants containing peracetic acid.

Peracetic acid (PAA) is a therapeutic agent used for disinfection in aquaculture, but it must be investigated thoroughly in order to mitigate diseases without harming the fish. Successful disinfectants (like PAA) should not leave dangerous residues in the environment in order to successfully contribute to sustainable aquaculture. The aim of our study was to compare the effectiveness of 6 commercial PAA products with different molecular PAA:H2O2 ratios to reduce bacterial growth of Aeromonas salmonicida and Yersinia ruckeri and to determine effective concentrations and exposure times. All products reduced colony-forming units (CFUs) of A. salmonicida and Y. ruckeri. Products with higher molecular PAA:H2O2 ratios inhibited growth better than products with lower molecular PAA:H2O2 ratios at the same PAA concentration; this indicates that H2O2 is not the driving force in the reduction of A. salmonicida and Y. ruckeri growth by PAA in vitro. The practical application of the products with high molecular PAA:H2O2 ratios should be prioritized if these pathogens are diagnosed.

Immobilization of acetyl xylan esterase on modified graphite oxide and utilization to peracetic acid production

In the previous work, acetyl xylan esterase (AXE) of Aspergillus ficcum was successfully produced in Pichia pastoris as host. In this study, the recombinant AXE was immobilized on graphite oxide and used for the production of peracetic acid. Immobilization efficiency was enhanced by modifying graphite oxide via surface functionalization. The conditions for enzyme immobilization were also investigated and the optimal conditions were determined as 4℃ of temperature, 24 h of reaction time and pH 7. The activity of immobilized AXE was found to be 62.53 U/g-support. With the immobilized AXE, about 134 mM of peracetic acid was produced under 37℃ of temperature and 30 min of reaction time. Enzyme activity remained at > 50% of the original after 10 production cycles.

Optimized immobilization of peracetic acid producing recombinant acetyl xylan esterase on chitosan coated-Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles

Recombinant acetyl xylan esterase (rAXE) from Aspergillus ficcum, which mediated the production of peracetic acid (PAA), was covalently immobilized with magnetic Fe3O4–chitosan nanoparticles (Fe3O4–CSN) using glutaraldehyde. Fe3O4–CSN were prepared by co-precipitation of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions in ammonia solution followed by coating of chitosan with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP), and were characterized by FESEM, SEM, FTIR and XRD. The immobilization rAXE on Fe3O4–CSN was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) by examining immobilization cross-linking time, enzyme concentration, and glutaraldehyde (GA) concentration. Based on the experimental values the predicted variables for the maximum immobilization of rAXE in terms of specific activity (0.042U) were found to be 13.65μg of rAXE protein and 0.265% of GA concentrations, where the optimum cross-linking time was 11.33h. The immobilized rAXE onto Fe3O4–CSN nanoparticles shows better stability at thermal and pH ranges than soluble free rAXE. The immobilized rAXE was stable for around 90% of activity in the aqueous phase, whereas it retains only 60% of its activity in the semi-aqueous phase after 10 cycles of reuse.

Comparison of the virucidal efficiency of peracetic acid, potassium monopersulfate and sodium hypochlorite on hepatitis A and enteric cytopathogenic bovine orphan virus

The virucidal activity of peroxy-products was evaluated and compared with sodium hypochlorite using the EN 14675 European suspension test and a surface test developed in our laboratory. The classical approach on infectivity of viruses was complemented with a prospective approach on virus genomes. Both infectivity tests were adapted and/or developed to determine the activity of disinfectants against reference bovine enterovirus type 1 [enteric cytopathogenic bovine orphan virus (ECBO)] and resistant hepatitis A virus (HAV) in conditions simulating practical use. Similar concentrations of active chlorine were virucidal against both viruses, either at 0·062% using the suspension test or at 0·50-1% using the surface test. However, for potassium monopersulfate and peracetic acid products, concentrations of approximately three times (3%) to 72 times (9%) higher were necessary against HAV than ECBO when determined with the suspension test. With the surface test, 4-8% peroxy-products were virucidal against HAV, either 16 times more peroxy-products concentrations than against ECBO. No significant impact on the targeted area of the viral genome measured by real-time RT-PCRs was obtained for ECBO and HAV suspensions treated with disinfectants, even with doses higher than the minimal virucidal concentrations. Sodium hypochlorite, but not peroxy-products, had similar activity against ECBO and HAV. No relation could be established between infectivity tests and genome destruction. This is the first comparative study that investigates with novel suspension and surface tests the reduction of infectivity and genome destruction of two resistant viruses by peroxy-compounds. The results and conclusions collected with European standards are discussed.

Effect of water hardness on peracetic acid toxicity to zebrafish, Danio rerio, embryos

The use of peracetic acid (PAA) in aquaculture has been suggested as an alternative therapeutic agent. Few data are available concerning fish toxicity by PAA or factors that modify this toxicity. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of water hardness on the acute toxicity of PAA products to embryos of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Embryos were exposed to PAA ranging from 0 to 9 mg/L in low-hardness (1.4 dH or 25 mg/L hardness as CaCO3), medium-hardness (14 dH or 250 mg/L hardness as CaCO3) and high-hardness (140 dH or 2,500 mg/L hardness as CaCO3) waters. The lowest LC50 value was 2.24 mg/L PAA in the low-hardness water, and the highest LC50 value was 7.14 mg/L PAA in the high-hardness water. Toxicity of PAA to embryos was found to be negatively correlated with water hardness. The pH decreased with increasing concentrations of PAA, and the test waters were observed to become more acidic in low hardness. In conclusion, aquaculturists using PAA should pay attention to water hardness to avoid acidosis.

Safety Advantages of On-Site Microprocesses

Usually large-scale capacities are preferred in process industry because of the economics of scale. However, small capacities bring along several other advantages, which are emphasized especially in on-site production. By producing on-site, the transportation of dangerous chemicals can be avoided. Moreover, smaller on-site production processes also mean a step towards inherently safer technology. Microreactors represent a technology that efficiently utilizes safety advantages resulting from small scale. These safety advantages of microreactors in on-site production are studied in this contribution. Production of peracetic acid is used as a test case. This unstable and explosive chemical is used, e.g. in treatment of municipal wastewater and pulp bleaching. This study is based on comparison of a conventional batch process with the capacity of 170 kg/h and an on-site continuous microprocess producing 10 kg/h peracetic acid. Preliminary design of these processes was carried out. Four different methods were used to analyze the safety of the processes. It was found that the conventional methods for analysis of process safety might not be reliable and adequate for radically novel technology, such as microprocesses. This is understandable because the methods are partly based on experience, which is very limited in the connection of totally novel technology.

Effect of different stabilized preparations of peracetic acid on biofilm

The effect of three stabilized peracetic acid (PAA) preparations (Bioxal M), with or without surfactants, on an Escherichia coli biofilm model was studied. The biofilm was prepared in glass tubes, and was evaluated indirectly using spectrophotometry. The ability of the products to fix or remove the biofilm was determined by their detergent activity (DA). None of the preparations tested fixed the biofilm. The effect of Bioxal M-1 on the biofilm was equivalent to the control (sterile water). Bioxal M-2 and Bioxal M-3 displayed slightly positive DAs. Non-ionic surfactant improved the DA of the products. Regardless of disinfectant activity, PAA agents display different DAs depending on their formulation. This criterion could be used to select the weakest biofilm-fixing agents. Users should therefore be concerned about the efficiency of the cleaning stage of medical devices. When choosing PAA products, non-fixing ability should be considered in addition to antimicrobial activity.

Oxygen toxicity from plants to people.

Over the past 30 years, acute oxygen toxicity in plants, mammals and enteric bacteria has been defined in terms of specific interactions of oxygen with a limited number of molecular targets. At least in the case of plants and mammals, response at the level of the whole organism is a consequence of oxygen's interaction with enzymes that should not exhibit oxygen sensitivity, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (rubisco) and glutamate decarboxylase (GAD). In enteric bacteria, inhibition of acetolactate synthase (ALS), or the production of peracetic acid by this enzyme, may be a contributing factor in the inactivation of dihydroxyacid dehydratase and loss of the ability to synthesize branched-chain amino acids under conditions of hyperbaric oxygen. The facile interaction of these enzymes with oxygen has questioned our fundamental understanding of their reaction mechanisms. Could these enzymes have radical mechanisms?

The peracetic acid-Schiff stain.

The organic peracids, such as perbenzoic, performic and peracetic acids, are strong oxidizing agents. It may be considered that they are derived by the inter­ action of hydrogen peroxide and an organic acid with the formation of an acid peroxide. Thus, the production of peracetic acid may be illustrated as follows: CH.COOH + H2O2 * CH3COOOH + H 20 glacial acetic peracetic acid acid The present paper deals first with the known chemical reactions of organic peracids with organic compounds. This provides one with a background for understanding the chemical basis of the peracetic acid-Schiff reaction in tissue sections. This histochemical method then is described, followed by the results of the method in staining selectively various tissue elements. The use of block­ ing and extraction procedures and of additional staining reactions are presented in order to substantiate the chemical basis of the peracetic acid-Schiff staining in tissue sections.