Feed Crop Production Research Articles

Thermodynamic Sustainability Assessment of Turkish Cash and Feed Crops: Evaluations and Recommendations

ABSTRACTThis work analyzes the sustainability status of cash crops (rice, wheat, and sunflower) and feed crops (silage and clover) cultivation in Turkey through thermodynamic sustainability assessment technique, emergy analysis (EA). EA offers insights into agricultural system's dependence on external resources, environmental loading, and renewability by classifying the resources that drive agricultural production as renewable, nonrenewable, and purchased. Data belonging to 17 agricultural systems evaluated in this work are gathered through survey method by interviewing the farmers. EA results reveal that production of cash crops is essentially unsustainable due to high dependence on externally purchased inputs fertilizer, diesel, and nonrenewable input water. Of cash crops, rice production has the lowest system renewability and the highest environmental loading. In feed crops, silage production is mainly unsustainable and clover production is in transition state in terms of sustainability. Feed crop production creates less environmental loading than cash crop production mainly due to being partially integrated with husbandry. Coinciding with this, the level of organic fertilization is found to be the determining factor in the sustainability status of the feed crop systems. Transforming these systems to sustainable ones requires increasing system's self‐sufficiency through enhanced circularity (increased nutrient recycling) and functioning of natural processes. Consequently, we recommend growing crops in polycultures rather than monocultures to benefit from sister plant and predator–prey relations, integrating crop production with animal rearing (natural fertilization) and utilizing waste‐origin bioenergy. For resource efficiency, we suggest adopting methods such as drip irrigation and utilization of biodegradable polymer‐coated fertilizer grains to prevent fertilizer runoffs.

America’s Dairy Grassland – Wisconsin milk production that regenerates people and land

ABSTRACT Transforming Wisconsin’s dairy production from annual crop-based to perennial grassland-based is critical for human health and well-being, but the ramifications for land use under this scenario have not been explored. I considered whether the amount of milk currently produced (~14.4B kg yr−1) with the confinement model (~2.57 AU ha−1) could be produced with a grassland model (~1.6 AU ha−1) without displacing production of other food and feed crops. Converting all land currently producing grains and forages for dairy (~796k ha) to grazed grassland would result in ~57% less milk production because there would be fewer cows producing less milk per animal. While the current system efficiently feeds dairy cattle when considering only milk yield per animal, it does so at the expense of environmental and social well-being, which are fundamental to the agroecological equation. To match current milk production exclusively on grassland would require ~1.04 M additional hectares, displacing other land uses in ways that would be initially very disruptive with significant transition costs, but eventually would improve ecosystem, community, and individual well-being. Planning for and realizing this vision requires major investments in markets, policies, and technical support of place-making and enterprise transitions to make Wisconsin America’s Dairy Grassland.

Carbon footprints, mitigation effects and economic performance of dairy farm systems in Inner Mongolia

CONTEXTReducing the GHG emissions intensity of milk production has become a key sustainability challenge for the dairy sector. Addressing this challenge requires thorough understanding of the current GHG emission levels of individual farms, the practices influencing GHG emissions, and the economic trade-offs associated with reducing those emissions. OBJECTIVEQuantify the carbon footprint (CF) and economic performance of milk production in Inner Mongolia (the main dairy farming region in China), and understand the main contributing factors to them. The effects of potential mitigation options at dairy farm system level were evaluated. METHODS: Life cycle assessment methodology was used to analyze the CF of 15 dairy farms (with year-round cow housing and crop feeding) selected for different milk production levels, herd structures and diet composition. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSThe average CF per kg of fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM; after allocation to milk) was 2.3 kg carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2-eq) (1.5–3.4 kg CO2-eq). Emissions related to feed production, manure management and enteric fermentation were the top three GHG emission sources and contributed an average of 27% (5%–46%), 28% (19%–38%) and 18% (14%–25%), respectively, to total emissions. The average cost of the farm system per ton FPCM was USD 540 per year. Feed costs dominated at 70% of the total costs. The CF of milk was negatively correlated with profit per kg FPCM. Mitigation potential of the CF of dairy production for single mitigation strategies ranged from 2.3% to 20.0% compared with business as usual, and combined mitigation measures could reduce emissions by 48.3%. The most effective mitigation measures should focus on decreasing N-fertilizer use per ha for feed crop production and increasing feed crop yield, adjusting herd structure for milk productivity and using localized feed inputs. All mitigation measures had a positive impact on farm profit, except for the improved manure management (changing the farms using manure composting to a static compost system and changing natural storage to direct land application). Therefore, the combination of crop and dairy production and manure management offer the greatest potential to reduce the GHG emissions from Inner Mongolia dairy farm systems. Economic subsidies and extension of findings to farmers might encourage more rapid adoption of these technologies. SIGNIFICANCEThe insights from our study can provide guidance for defining and prioritizing mitigation strategies for dairy production to reduce GHGs emission in other rapidly developing countries and regions with crop-based housed-cow dairy production.

Environmental sustainability of Finnish pork production: life cycle assessment of climate change and water scarcity impacts

PurposeThe degrading impacts of livestock production on the environment are well acknowledged. Although ruminants are much studied due to their large contribution to climate change impact, monogastrics are also known to carry a significant load, and mitigation options need investigation. Here, the climate change impact and water scarcity impact of Finnish pork production was investigated using the life cycle assessment approach.MethodsAs the importance of communicating reliable environmental information has been acknowledged in the EU, methods and guidance for this purpose have been developed. Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules have also been published for several food product categories, although not yet for meat. Here, the life cycle assessment methods were used based on PEFCR guidance and the draft version of red meat PEFCR guidance to achieve a reliable, transparent and comparable assessment.ResultsFinnish pork production resulted in a climate change impact of 3.6 kg CO2 eq. kgCW−1 and a water scarcity impact of 0.69 m3 eq. kgCW−1. The largest contribution to the climate change impact came from feed crop production, with an impact of 43%. Land-use changes were included, and their contribution to the Finnish pork climate change impact was 3%. Similarly, in the water scarcity impact, feed crop production was a major contributor, with 41% from fattening pig feed production. Significant contributions to both categories also came from piglet production, including feed crop production, and to the climate change impact from manure storage.ConclusionsFinnish production was seen to already largely utilise sidestreams and domestic feed ingredients, although, e.g. soybean is still used. Based on the results, in mitigating the environmental impacts of Finnish pork production, attention should especially be paid to the resource-efficient production of domestic feed crops and reduced use of organic soils. As current assessment models are unable to grasp the impacts of regenerative farming techniques, the development of LCA methods is also required. Water scarcity impact was seen to be largely affected by the utilisation of feed crops originating from water-scarce countries. As a mitigation measure, the procurement of these feed crops and ingredients should therefore be directed to water-abundant areas and from production which does not depend on irrigation water or the extensive use of synthetic inputs.

The influence of organo-mineral fertilizers on the yield and quality of oilseed flax in northern Kazakhstan

The article shows that in the agro-industrial complex of Northern Kazakhstan, much attention is paid to the issues of progressive improvement of soil fertility, crop yields, increasing the production of grain, feed and other crops based on a scientifically based farming system. Currently, the acreage should be carried out in the crop rotation system and a special place is occupied by the problem of providing the population with high-protein and balanced fatty foods. The introduction of oilseed flax into diversified types of field crop rotations contributes not only to providing the national economy with oilseed products, but also to improving the agrophysical, biological and agrochemical properties of ordinary chernozems. In addition, flaxseed contains a large amount of balanced and easily digestible protein, vegetable oil, various sugars and carbon waters, as well as essential vitamins and trace elements needed in the diet. Field experimental studies were conducted to identify the effect of the effectiveness of mineral and organic fertilizers on improving soil fertility, the formation of the size and quality of flax crops, and to determine the most effective option in the northern region of Kazakhstan. The optimal use of mineral and organic fertilizers caused a positive effect of flax plant cenosis on the density, in particular, on the field germination of plants, plant growth dynamics, accumulation of raw and dry mass of flax plants. The optimal use of mineral and organic fertilizers contributed in addition to increasing soil fertility on plant yields and profitability of growing oilseed flax.

MAIN ASPECTS OF THE MANUFACTURER OF ORGANIC PRODUCTS IN UKRAINE

The article is devoted to highlighting the state and prospects for the development of organic production in Ukraine. The main requirements for the production, classification and labeling of organic products of animal and plant origin are presented. The current legal norms governing their certification and circulation are emphasized. The key provisions regarding evaluation and regulation in this field of activity are reflected. The stages of improvement of the domestic legislative framework of organic production are shown on the way of adaptation to European standards.Purpose. To highlight the state and prospects for the development of organic production in Ukraine and the improvement of the legislative framework of organic production on the way to adaptation to European standards. Materials and methods. Methodical analysis and abstract-logical method for summarizing the criteria for evaluating the formation, development and integration of domestic organic production into the structure of the world production of safe products of animal husbandry and crop production. Results. The article describes in detail the development of the organic movement, which is a promising lever for food security in Ukraine. Therefore, the work on the legal regulation of the activities of domestic producers of organic products does not stop. The legislation is improving in the direction of introducing effective state support in this area at the regional and national levels. Of course, organic feed production, animal husbandry and crop production will continue to exist in parallel with non-organic production. However, the principles and relationship of these systems will depend significantly on the availability of energy sources, plant protection products, fertilizers, soil fertility, care for the preservation of the natural environment, ensuring welfare population and its needs in healthy nutrition. In addition, for the restoration of agricultural lands, demining and bioremediation with the use of bacterial and phytoremediation of soil and water resources should be applied. For this, after the liberation of our state, a return to the peaceful management of the national economy is necessary. We believe in the victory and restoration of Ukraine with the help of allied states and people of good will.

Lower pork consumption and technological change in feed production can reduce the pork supply chain environmental footprint in China.

Nearly half of global pork production and consumption occurs in China, but the transition towards intensification is associated with worsening environmental impacts. Here we explore scenarios for implementing structural and technological changes across the pork supply chain to improve environmental sustainability and meet future demand. Following the middle-of-the-road socio-economic pathway (SSP2), we estimate that the environmental footprint from the pork supply chain will increase by ~50% from 2017 to 2050. Utilizing technologies that improve feed crop production and manure management could reduce phosphorus and nitrogen losses by three-quarters and one-third, respectively, with modest reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and cropland area. Reducing pork consumption had substantial mitigation potential. Increased feed and pork imports would decrease domestic environmental footprints and meet demand, but increase footprints elsewhere. We conclude that farm-specific technologies and structural adjustments can support the development of rural, small-scale pig farms near cropland and promote circular economy principles.

Atmospheric deposition of particulate matter from beef cattle feedlots is a likely contributor of pyrethroid occurrence in isolated wetland sediment: Source apportionment and ecological risk assessment

Industrial cattle feeding operations (feedlots) have been subject to public scrutiny in recent decades regarding environmental impacts of site runoff and aerial dispersion of agrochemical-laden particulate matter (PM). However, source apportionment of multi-use pesticides is challenging in mixed agricultural settings. Beef cattle on feed and row crop production are heavily concentrated in the Southern Great Plains of North America, where playa wetlands are vulnerable to agrochemical inputs and sedimentation from surrounding land use. In the current study, playa basin sediment (n = 33) was analyzed via UHPLC-MS for 21 agrochemicals spanning eight classes (macrocyclic lactones, neonicotinoids, organophosphates, pyrethroids, triazoles, β-methoxyacrylates, a carboximide, and phenylpyrazole). Pyrethroids were detected most frequently (75.8% of basins). Sediment pyrethroid concentrations were also significantly correlated (R2 = 0.178, p = 0.007) with feedlot proximity (<1–50 km). Principal component analysis (PCA) of land use metrics extracted three principal components (74.3% of total variance), with principal component regression (PCR) showing the greatest agrochemical occurrence in basins heavily weighted by cropland buffer acreage (≤1 km) and feedlot proximity. Sediment toxicity benchmarks protective of two benthic invertebrates (Hyallela azteca and Chironomus spp.) identified λ-cyhalothrin, fenvalerate, and esfenvalerate as individual compounds exceeding levels of acute (RQ > 0.5) and chronic (RQ > 1) concern in >5% and >50% of cases, respectively. However, additive toxicity of co-occurring pyrethroids represents an acute high risk (RI > 1; median RI; acute = 2.4, chronic = 38.6) to benthic invertebrates in >75% of cases, which may threaten higher-order wetland taxa via bioaccumulation and trophic transfer.

Environmental impact assessment of Finnish feed crop production with methodological comparison of PEF and IPCC methods for climate change impact

The impact of livestock production on the environment is already well acknowledged. When non-ruminants are considered, the major contributors to products' environmental impacts are related to feed crop production. Feed crop production sustainability is therefore especially relevant in addressing the sustainability and mitigation potential of non-ruminant production. Here, the climate change impact and water scarcity (WS) impact of the current Finnish feed crop production was assessed. The impact of methodological differences on the climate change impact of national-, regional-, and farm-level feed crop production were investigated for utilising the European Commission's Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) guidance and the guidelines provided by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).Feed crops selected for the assessment were considered as typical for Finnish pork and broiler chicken production, and included wheat (T. aestivum), oat (A. sativa), barley (H. vulgare), turnip rape (B. rapa ssp. oleifera), pea (P. sativum), and faba bean (V. faba). The farmgate climate change impact varied from turnip rape's 1.22 kg CO2 eq./kg to faba bean's 0.37 kg CO2 eq./kg, while cereals resulted in 0.47–0.63 kg CO2 eq./kg, and pea 0.49 kg CO2 eq./kg according to IPCC methods. Similarly, with PEF methods, the results varied from turnip rape's 1.18 kg CO2 eq./kg to 0.31 kg CO2 eq./kg of faba bean, cereals resulted in 0.42–0.58 kg CO2 eq./kg, and pea 0.43 kg CO2 eq./kg. The absolute difference between methods ranged between −0.045 and −0.068 kg CO2 eq./kg. The analysis showed that even if the relative error varied from 3% to 19% between methods, the relative order was the same, independent of the methods. The farmgate WS impact of Finnish feed crops was 0.23 m3 eq./kg for turnip rape, 0.05 m3 eq./kg for faba bean, 0.08 m3 eq./kg for barley, 0.08 m3 eq./kg for oat, 0.09 m3 eq./kg for wheat, and 0.06 m3 eq./kg for pea.It was observed that the PEF and IPCC methods functioned similarly in distinguishing better and worse performing crop production between cases. It was shown that the major contributors to feed crop production in Finland were energy and input production, N2O from N inputs, and peat soil degradation. The amount of N2O emissions from peat soil degradation especially demonstrated high variability and was therefore identified to have high mitigation potential. The investigation demonstrated the importance of including N2O emissions in the widest form when finding production hotspots.

Mitigating environmental impacts using net energy system in feed formulation in China's pig production

As the world's largest pork producer, China is facing substantial environmental pressures caused by pig production and the relevant feed production. The net energy (NE) system is promoted as a new evaluation method to evaluate energy content in feed and energy requirements of pigs, but its application lacks of comprehensive and comparative evaluation from the environmental perspective. To identify influence factors and to develop mitigation strategies, the carbon and nitrogen footprints and land use (LU) of pigs (25–120 kg) in China were explored through scenario analysis and cradle-to-farm gate life cycle assessment (LCA). Functional unit (FU) was defined as 1 kg of live weight increase in pig. Among all the procedures of pig production, feed crop production and manure management were the principal contributors to the greenhouse gas (GHG) and nitrogen emissions. As for the carbon footprint, the GHG emissions ranged from 2.37 to 2.55 kg CO2-eq. FU−1 for scenarios using the NE system, 2 % lower than that of the metabolizable energy (ME) system. Cottonseed meal-based scenario generated the lowest GHG emissions, and anaerobic digestion achieved the same effects as other manure management methods. As for the nitrogen footprint, reactive nitrogen (Nr) emissions ranged from 53.4 to 66.2 g Nr FU−1 for scenarios using the NE system, 4 % lower than that of the ME system. Peanut-based scenario won the lowest Nr losses. Moreover, arable LU ranged from 4.63 to 5.85 m2 FU−1 for scenarios using the NE system, 4 % lower than that of the ME system, and economic advantage by using the NE system was also proved. Sensitivity analysis and data quality assessment were conducted to quantify the uncertainties of the above models. In conclusion, the application of the NE system in feed formulation was an effective strategy to improve the environmental sustainability of China's pig production.

Growing Crops in Arid, Drought-Prone Environments: Adaptation and Mitigation

Drought poses significant risks to society, in particular irrigated-crop production, which accounts for a large share of global freshwater use. Given its key role in the production of food, feed and fiber crops, there exists a need for policy measures to prevent and mitigate the impacts of drought on irrigated agriculture. This paper proposes that the design of drought policy should take into account actual farmer behavior in response to water scarcity. To this end, we offer a detailed analysis of land allocation and crop-choice decisions over time in an irrigation district located in the dry plains of Northern Mexico. We find that farmers systematically change their crop mix in response to water availability. In particular, in times of drought, irrigation water flows to higher-yield and higher-price crops (which also require more intense irrigation) to the detriment of less water-demanding (but lower value) crops. Farmers use water with the goal of earning a living—economizing on water per se has no relevance in that context. Policies that do not explicitly recognize this may result in ineffective, inefficient and/or unfair outcomes.

Production of Feed Crops for Local Dairy Goats Using an Integrated Farming System

This investigation aimed to identify the production and composition of crops as feed, classify the types of integrated farming in different locations, and compare dairy goats based on their morphometric characteristics. The data used were collected from July to November, 2021 in the Malang, Lumajang, and Bangkalan regencies of Indonesia, via a survey and direct observations. Descriptive, multivariate, and variance analyses were adopted using RStudio to analyze the collected data. In Malang and Lumajang, farmers adopted agroforestry, alley cropping, and cover crops as the main types of integrated farming. The integrated farming adopted by the farmers in Malang, Bangkalan, and Lumajang helped to explain the differences in forage crops. Calliandra calothyrsus, Indigofera zollingeriana, and Thitonia diversifolia are non-grasses having high levels of average production. In Lumajang, farmers provided only a few combinations with Calliandra which was the most intensively grown crop. In Malang, six crops were combined for the dairy goat feed. Pennisetum purpureum was the crop most intensely grown to feed the PE (Etawa crossbred). In Bangkalan, Pote-Arosbaya goats were fed a combination of eight crops. Moringa oleifera, Bambusa sp., Artocarpus heterophyllus, and natural grasses were the most popular feed crops. In Malang and Lumajang, the PE Singosari and Senduro goats had a high degree of similarity based on their morphometric characteristics, respectively.

МИНТАҚАДА ЧОРВАЧИЛИКНИ РИВОЖЛАНТИРИШНИНГ ИСТИҚБОЛЛИ ЙЎНАЛИШЛАРИНИ БЕЛГИЛАШ ВА ПРОГНОЗ КЎРСАТКИЧЛАРИНИ ИШЛАБ ЧИҚИШ

This article discusses issues of reducing the impact of external influences in the presence of external effects, determining priorities for the development of agriculture in ecologically critical areas, in particular in the Republic of Karakalpakstan. According to the study, there is a high correlation between feed production, crop production, agriculture and animal husbandry in the region, a high share of farms in the production of livestock products, as well as a large number of pastures, which is one of the promising areas, in the development of animal husbandry. At the same time, the research findings based on econometric models also show that the development of animal husbandry serves to ensure optimality. As a result, it has been found that the development of the livestock industry in the Republic of Karakalpakstan will serve to reduce the impact of external effects. Hence, based on the development of promising directions for optimal regulation of external effects in the region, promising directions for the development of livestock breeding in the region and forecast indicators for 2021–2025 have been developed.

Water Footprints, Intra‐National Virtual Water Flows, and Associated Sustainability Related to Pork Production and Consumption: A Case for China

AbstractGrowth in water consumption with intensified virtual water (VW) flows from increased production and consumption of both meat and feed crops threatens the sustainability of water resources in water‐scarce countries and export regions. However, a sustainability assessment of both water footprints (WFs) and VW flows related to animal products at a subnational scale is lacking. Here we estimate direct and indirect WFs as well as the inter‐provincial VW flows associated with pork production and consumption in China for the years 2008 and 2017. The contributions of feed crop production and consumption were identified. Both life cycle assessment and WF network frameworks were applied to evaluate the sustainability of blue WF and VW flows. Results show that the national annual consumptive (green‐blue) WF and degradative (gray) WF of pork production increased by 8.7% and 15.8%, respectively. More than 80% of the blue WF in pork production was unsustainable. By 2017, 62% of the unsustainable blue WF and 64% of the water scarcity footprints of pork production in the south resulted from consuming the feed crops from the north. This analysis highlights the importance and provides feasible approaches to uncover remote geographical effects on regional water scarcities from different steps in the value chains of livestock products.

348 Integration of Nutrition with Air and Water Environmental Concerns

Abstract The dairy and beef cattle industries face a number of environmental challenges related to air and water quality as well as the use of limited resources such as water and fossil energy. Mitigation strategies are available and being developed to reduce environmental impacts, but economical solutions remain a challenge. Assessment of mitigation strategies requires a comprehensive evaluation to assure that benefits in one component are not offset by harm in another. Process-based modeling and life cycle assessment provide tools for conducting this type of integrated evaluation. The most cost-effective strategies often begin with animal feeding. The diet of the animal affects resource use and nutrient excretion where the amount and form of nitrogen and phosphorus excreted affect air and water emissions. National assessments of the U.S. beef and dairy industries indicate where mitigation is most needed. Although greenhouse gas emissions receive most of the concern today, water consumption is another important concern, particularly for producers in drier regions such as the western United States. Over 90% of the water consumed in beef and dairy production is used in irrigated feed-crop production. Therefore, animal diets that use byproduct or other feeds not related to irrigated production can provide large reductions in the water footprint of beef and dairy products. Another emerging concern is that of ammonia emission where beef and dairy cattle may contribute more than half of the national emission inventory. Efficient protein feeding is the most economical and effective step that can be taken to reduce this environmental impact. Simulation of mitigation strategies using production system models provides comprehensive evaluation and prioritization among available and possible options, giving direction toward more sustainable ruminant animal production systems.

Valuing Cattle Manure as an Agricultural Resource for Efficiency and Environmental Sustainability

Within a context of beef feedlots and feed-crop production systems, we surveyed farmers to identify their perceived monetary value for the manure they used or could have used. Value is contextual with respect to a number of socio-economic, environmental, regulatory, and physical factors, which influence farmer’s inclinations about how they manage manure. The most desirable manure management strategies are likely practiced by those who perceive its value highest, and, conversely, the least desirable manure management strategies are likely practiced by those who assign the lowest value to it. This study considered factors that affect or relate to farmer perceptions of manure’s value. Using quantile regression, we observed variations in how farmers perceived the value of manure, considering farm and farmer characteristics, farming practices, select preferences, and whether or not they used manure on their own cropland. For example, we found that livestock producers who grow feed for their own cattle value manure differently compared to crop producers who do not manage cattle, most likely due to perceived need. Added years of experience in farming lowered the farmer’s perception of manure’s value. Additionally, extra tillage required when using manure was seen by farmers not as a burden but rather as a benefit.

How dietary transition changed land use in Mexico.

The nutrition transition towards western diets in developing countries occurs at multiple levels, impacting health and society and also the environment. In Mexico, the shift in food consumption and production patterns, particularly in relation to animal source foods (ASF), has changed land use. We studied the consumption and production of ASF and change in agricultural land use in Mexico during the second half of the twentieth century and until 2013; using domestic and international data sources, our findings show an increasing proportion of farmed area devoted to the production of feed crops domestically, and also an increasing demand of farmed feed beyond national borders. We discuss how the intensification of livestock production is associated to major environmental threats and suggest that opportunities are available for sustainable and healthy food options.

Water footprint and economic water productivity assessment of eight dairy cattle farms based on field measurement

Water scarcity prevailing in the drylands is threatening the sustainability of livestock production systems. The water footprint (WF) indicator was proposed as a metric of water use. This study aimed to determine the WF and the economic water productivity (EWP) of 1 kg of fat and protein-corrected milk (FPCM) in eight dairy farms (n = 8; animals = 117 ± 62; area = 198 ± 127; 95% confidence level) in northern Tunisia. Then, to assess the effects of three simulation scenarios targeting the reduction of the WF of milk production (scenario A: using triticale silage to replace, on DM basis, the silage of maize, sorghum or ray-grass; scenario B: reducing by 56% the wastage of water devoted to milking, cooling, cleaning and servicing; scenario C: using concentrate feeds imported from Brazil and Argentina instead of that imported from France). A year-round monitoring of on-farm practices was performed using water-meters and recording equipment installed in key locations in the target dairy farms: (i) water used for feed production, (ii) cow watering, (iii) servicing water, (v) crop and forage production and (iv) economic and production performance were controlled by water source (green and blue). Over the eight farms evaluated, milk production consumed on average 1.36 ± 0.41 m3/kg FPCM, of which 0.93 ± 0.40 m3/kg FPCM was green water and 0.42 ± 0.30 m3/kg FPCM was blue water. However, virtual water of 1 kg FPCM averaged 43% ± 14.3%. Water used for feed production for lactating cows represents approximately 87% ± 6% of the total WF of milk production. However, drinking and servicing water contributed by 3.75% ± 2% and 9% ± 5% to the total WF of milk, respectively. The EWP assessment revealed that the selected dairy farms had a relatively small gross margin per m3 of water averaging US$ 0.05 ± 0.04. The variation in WF of milk was mainly associated with diets’ ingredients, which affected milk productivity and water consumption. Scenario analysis indicated that using feed with less water requirements or importing feeds from countries where its water consumption is low could reduce consumptive water use for milk production by up to 16%. The efficient use of servicing water could reduce blue WF of milk by up to 4%. The implementation of these measures would lead to potential total water savings in the Tunisian dairy sector of 646 million m3 per year (30%).

Freshwater ecotoxicity assessment of pesticide use in crop production: Testing the influence of modeling choices

Pesticides help to control weeds, pests, and diseases contributing, therefore, to food availability. However, pesticide fractions not reaching the intended target may have adverse effects on the environment and the field ecosystems. Modeling pesticide emissions and the link with characterizing associated impacts is currently one of the main challenges in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of agricultural systems. To address this challenge, this study takes advantage of the latest recommendations for pesticide emission inventory and impact assessment and frames a suitable interface for those LCA stages and the related mass distribution of pesticide avoiding a temporal overlapping. Here, freshwater ecotoxicity impacts of the production of feed crops (maize, grass, winter wheat, spring barley, rapeseed, and peas) in Denmark were evaluated during a 3-year period, testing the effects of inventory modeling and the recent updates of the characterization method (USEtox). Potential freshwater ecotoxicity impacts were calculated in two functional units reflecting crop impact profiles per ha and extent of cultivation, respectively. Ecotoxicity impacts decreased over the period, mainly because of the reduction of insecticides use (e.g., cypermethrin). Three different emission modeling scenarios were tested; they differ on the underlining assumptions and data requirements. The main aspects influencing impact results are the interface between inventory estimates and impact assessment, and the consideration of intermedia processes, such as crop growth development and pesticide application method. Impact scores for AS2 were higher than RS and AS1, but the differences in the crops ranking was less apparent. On the other hand, the influence on the estimation of impacts for individual AIs was considerable and statistical differences were found in the impact results modeled in scenarios RS and AS2. Thereby indicating the effect of inventory models on ecotoxicity impact assessment.

Soil productivity and its relation to the environment in the Czech Republic

Based on the evaluation of data from agricultural operations of 60 enterprises in the period 2012–2016 on 339 516 ha, frequent increases in nutrient dosages for production are mainly in marginal areas where higher production than is equivalent to optimal production on the soil is required. In the production of crops, it is most manifest in the production of feed crops, which are often used for the continuous flow of livestock production and biogas stations. Because of the above-standard utilization of fertilizers, yields rise above the level corresponding to the standard conditions for soil–climatic conditions, but also to decrease the efficiency of fertilizer utilization and thus to overload the optimal soil productivity. In contrast, the standard use of fertilizers is reflected in winter wheat, grain corn, triticale, potatoes and rye. Because of the lower strength of the humus horizon in marginal areas, it can be assumed that by increased fertilization, the agricultural enterprises solve the lower sorption capacity of the soil. The overall finding is also a warning to the occupation of quality land for non-agricultural purposes because their intensification cannot be transferred into marginal areas with no environmental impact.