Charcoal Production Research Articles

Growth and carbon stocks in four mangrove species planted on a former charcoal concession site in Ranong, Thailand

The ending of mangrove concessions for charcoal production in 1998 gave new impetus to mangrove conservation and rehabilitation in Thailand, including the designation of the Ranong Biosphere Reserve (RBR) to protect Thailand’s largest single mangrove ecosystem. Four of the dominant tree species in the RBR were planted as seedlings in single species blocks on a former concession site in 1994: Rhizophora apiculata (Ra) and R. mucronata (Rm); and 1995: Bruguiera cylindrica (Bc) and Ceriops tagal (Ct). Tree growth and natural recruitment of seedlings and saplings were recorded in 100 m2 sampled quadrats in each species block in 1999, 2008, 2019 and 2023. All four species exceeded 10 m mean height by 2019 (range 12.1 ± 3.8 m to 19.6 ± 2.3 m), while mean DBH was 7.5 ± 3.4 cm to 9.1 ± 6.9 cm. There was evidence of self-thinning mortality by 2023, especially in the Ra and Bc blocks. Some illegal cutting of Bc trees between 2019 and 2023 further impacted the growth performance of this species, which exhibited a compensatory strategy of self-planting many seedlings. The height and DBH of the four planted species in 2023 were still less than in a mature Rhizophora- and Ceriops-dominated conservation forest area (mean tree height 17.4 ± 6.7 m; DBH 15.1 ± 7.3 cm). However, soil organic carbon (SOC) was high and not significantly different between the monoculture species blocks (525 ± 107 Mg C ha-1 to 743 ± 31 Mg C ha-1) and the conservation forest (616 ± 91 Mg C ha-1). SOC accounted for 74%-90% of the total ecosystem C, which was 650 to 829 Mg C ha-1 in the planted species blocks and 828 Mg C ha-1 in the conservation forest. The estimates for plant, soil and ecosystem C are compared with those reported from other natural and planted mangrove sites in Southeast Asia, especially along the Andaman Sea coast. The findings confirm the importance of conserving the few remaining areas of near-primary mangrove forest in this region.

Economics of Briquettes and Charcoal Production Technologies in Kenya: Implication for Wide-scale Commercialization

Economics of Briquettes and Charcoal Production Technologies in Kenya: Implication for Wide-scale Commercialization

A focus on the last 1000 years of natural environmental changes in the tropical rainforests of West and Central Africa. Can we detect anthropogenic disturbances?

The vast tropical rainforests of West and Central Africa were impacted by marked climatic deterioration, which mainly developed between 2500 and 2000 cal yr BP. However, the incidence of human intervention in these rainforests appears all the more speculative, although this was the period when the first stages of Bantu migration occurred towards the south. On the scale of the last millennium, which has seen increasing penetration and colonization of these Bantu peoples, one can envisage a priori a more accentuated anthropogenic pressure on the forest landscape. The combined observations of the environmental processes during the last 1000 years, as preserved in sediments from lakes, swamps, flooded forests and even oceanic environments, are presented on the basis of 24 records. The dominant number of sites in the humid forest or wooded savannas recorded only processes of relatively small size and local effects influencing vegetation cover almost simultaneously around 1000 and 500 cal yr BP; nothing is comparable with the devastating effect on a very large scale of the 2600 cal yr BP forest crisis. Conversely, other sites located in more perennial forest or savanna did not reveal any discontinuity. In all the examples of sedimentary archives considered, no out-of-phase or unusual event, possibly linked to human population and its impact, was observed. However, in more recent times, in intensive iron-ore mining/smelting areas, changes in the vegetal cover could be a legacy of charcoal production impacting forest biomass. Nevertheless, despite the clear cultural and socio-political importance of iron, its role in shaping vegetation communities in the Central African forest is generally presumed to be negligible. The oceanic causes of these climatic oscillations are more widely accepted. On a larger scale, the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age are climatic anomalies visible in a number of palaeoenvironmental records worldwide and date to ∼1600–1000 cal yr BP and ∼ 700–100 cal yr BP, respectively. These events are less visible or sometimes not present in some palynological records of tropical Africa, whereas reconstructions from lacustrine records in Atlantic equatorial Africa show overall reductions in lake levels and increases in pollen belonging to light-demanding and pioneer vegetation formations in relation to these two oscillations. To reply to what was more important «the potential influence of human activities on regional climate, or the vulnerability of societies to environmental variability», it appears clearly to date, that the second paradigm is most likely. However, today, the ongoing combined efffects of climate change and human impact, including the decimation of the diversity of seed dispersers necessary to regenerate the rainforests of West and Central Africa, may have irreparable and unforeseen consequences.

Using the Circulating Principle of Hot Air Flow for Accumulating the Energy of a Vertical Charcoal Kiln to Increase the Efficiency of the Charcoal Production Process in Thailand

Using the Circulating Principle of Hot Air Flow for Accumulating the Energy of a Vertical Charcoal Kiln to Increase the Efficiency of the Charcoal Production Process in Thailand

EXTRATOS PIROLENHOSOS DE CASCA DE COCO, ACÁCIA NEGRA E EUCALIPTO: CARACTERIZAÇÃO FÍSICO-QUÍMICA E AVALIAÇÃO IN VITRO COMO POTENCIAIS INIBIDORES DA UREASE

PYROLIGNEOUS ACIDS OF COCONUT SHELL, BLACK WATTLE AND EUCALYPTUS: PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND IN VITRO EVALUATION AS POTENTIAL UREASE INHIBITORS. The increase in food production to meet the demand of the world’s growing population is largely conditioned by the efficiency of agricultural fertilizers. The development of relatively low-cost urease inhibitors and more environmentally friendly ones is a challenge for agriculture, especially because urea is the most used nitrogen fertilizer globally. The pyroligneous acid (PA), a by-product of wood charcoal production, stimulates plant growth, increases crop productivity, improves microbial metabolism, and induces plant tolerance to (a)biotic stresses. This work investigated the in vitro urease inhibitory potential of tree PAs of distinct plant biomass origin and production process. Coconut (Cocus nucifera) shell PA showed the highest urease inhibitory activity, followed by black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) PA and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus urograndis, a hybrid of Eucalyptus grandis and Eucalyptus urophylla). The same sequence was observed for the content of phenols and humic substances (humic acids + fulvic acids). This fact probably justifies the greater inhibitory activity, since both humic substances and some phenols normally present in PA, such as hydroquinone, have already been reported in the literature as urease inhibitors. The results are promising in terms of urease inhibition by PA samples, especially due to its low cost, biodegradability, non-toxicity, high solubility in water, and beneficial effects on plant development.

Identifying the hotspot area of Indo-Pacific humpback (Sousa chinensis) and Irrawaddy (Orcaella brevirostris) dolphins in Matang waters, Perak, Malaysia

Abstract. Sobri MF, Jaaman SA, Mohamed Z, Muda AM, Rashid MASA, Zhang X. 2022. Identifying the hotspot area of Indo Pacific humpback (Sousa chinensis) and Irrawaddy (Orcaella brevirostris) dolphins in Matang waters, Perak, Malaysia. Biodiversitas 23: 6106-6113. The Indo-Pacific humpback (Sousa chinensis) and Irrawaddy (Orcaella brevirostris) dolphins are commonly found in Matang waters, Perak, Malaysia. The area, filled with healthy mangrove forest cover and many estuaries, is not only frequented by the dolphins for its daily activities but also extensively used by locals for artisanal fishing, charcoal production and organizing ecotourism activities. There could be a high risk of human-dolphin interactions, hence determining habitat use and identifying critical habitats or "hot spots" for the dolphins in the area is important. In this study, a series of dedicated boat sighting surveys were conducted from March 2019 to January 2021 between Kuala Gula and Kuala Jarum Mas. The total survey effort was 3325.76 km, 44 days and 239.38 hours. A total of 69 dolphin sightings were made, consisting of 40 Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins and 29 Irrawaddy dolphin observations, respectively. During each sighting, every dolphin's behaviors were categorized as: foraging, socializing, evasive, and travelling, and the survey area was classified into four blocks. The results indicated that different dolphin species have different hotspot areas. For Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins, the hotspot area was Kuala Sangga, while the Irrawaddy dolphin's hotspot area was outside Kuala Larut, and there was a small overlap between the two dolphins' hotspots. Among the recorded behaviors (n: 281) for both dolphins, the most dominant was foraging (72.24%), followed by socializing (17%), evasive (7%), and travelling (4%). The sighted foraging behavior for both dolphin populations was dominant, indicating the hot spots were major foraging grounds for the two dolphin populations. This study shows the importance of Matang waters as a conservation area for the species and warrants further studies of dolphin population ecology to be conducted.

Enhancing Germination of Seeds of a Multipurpose Tree Species Combretum molle

Combretum molle R. Br. ex G. Don (Combretaceae) is a highly valued indigenous multipurpose tree species that has gained considerable attention in recent times due to its importance as a medicinal plant as well as an alternative species for wood and charcoal production. However, we lack adequate information on simple and appropriate methods that could be used to break its distinct seed dormancy to support domestication of wild populations apparently undergoing over exploitation and the negative impacts of deforestation. Eight pre-treatment methods involving complete removal of wing, complete removal of mesocarp, overnight soaking in cold water (24 °C) and partial removal of wing by scorching with fire, and their combinations were tested against the seed dormancy. Of all, the complete removal of mesocarp and overnight soaking in cold water followed with additional soaking in cold water for 24 h took the shortest imbibition (2 days) and germination (7 days) periods, highest germination value (76) and germination energy (80%). Similarly, the same treatment scored significantly (P < 0.05) higher cumulative germination of 72%. To obtain best germination traits, C. molle seeds should be pre-treated by removing the mesocarp and overnight soaking in cold water followed with additional soaking in cold water for 24 h, before sowing. These results have wide implications including supporting domestication and forest landscapes restoration in Tanzania.
 Keywords: Domestication; Restoration; Indigenous species; Dormancy; Lesser known species

Evaluation of Four Types of Kilns Used to Produce Charcoal from Several Tree Species in Mexico

Charcoal production is an activity that dates back over the years. The objective of the study was to determine the temperature and heating ramp in industrial carbonization processes using different kiln types and to quantify its impact on yield and quality of charcoal from different firewood species. The selection of sites, kiln types, and species investigated was based on those with highest production in Mexico. Brazilian beehive kilns using Arbutus xalapensis, Quercus durifolia, and Quercus sideroxyla species were analyzed; modified Brazilian beehive kilns with Pithecellobium dulce and Tamarindus indica; Argentine half-orange kilns with Quercus magnoliifolia and Q. sideroxyla, industrial metal kilns with Brosimum alicastrum, Vitex gaumeri, Manilkara zapota, and Pouteria unilocularis. The process time, temperature, heating ramp, production yield, and quality of charcoal produced were determined. Data were analyzed in a completely random statistical design. The industrial type kilns showed the highest production yield (>35%), and the Brazilian beehive kilns obtained the longest carbonization time (>240 h). On the other hand, the modified Brazilian beehive kilns obtained the best energetic characteristics (>75% fixed carbon and <16% volatile material). A carbonization process with a slow heating ramp (<1 °C min−1) and temperatures of 500–600 °C can generate a charcoal with export quality.

Local People's perception of forest ecosystem services, traditional conservation, and management approaches in North Wollo, Ethiopia

For their livelihoods, many people rely on the services offered by forest ecosystems. Nevertheless, forests are being lost and degraded on a global scale, endangering the delivery of important services. This is the situation in Ethiopia, a nation where land degradation and deforestation pose a threat to the majority of forest ecosystems. Studies in North Wollo are very scarce and limited despite the present growth in evidence bases measuring environmental services and risks across the globe. The traditional knowledge and attitudes of the locals concerning trends in forest management, conservation, and ecosystem services were investigated in this study. We used many approaches for gathering data. The quantitative data were analyzed and interpreted using descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, multiple linear regression, and general linear regression models. The main threats to forest ecosystems in North Wollo included deforestation for the production of firewood and charcoal, increased population growth and agricultural needs, environmental pollution, the allelopathic influence of exotic species, and loss of soil fertility. These dangers cause instability and a decline in the range of ecological services provided by forests. Regarding this, the customary rules, social exclusion, and indigenous beliefs were utilized as a conservation technique to maintain and protect the remaining natural resources. In addition, the community uses terracing, gully prevention, and hillside planting with native trees to restore the ecology that has been damaged. As a result, efforts should be made to solve the current difficulties and dangers since local people, the government and non-governmental organizations have an interest in preserving forest ecosystems. In general, encouraging the direct involvement of locals in decision-making and equitable distribution of the benefits resulting from the ecosystems could aid in addressing the difficulties and risks to the ecosystems.

Instrukcyja dla urzędników, oficjalistów i węglarzy leśnych z 1826 r. Nieudana próba modernizacji rządowego węglarstwa w Królestwie Polskim (1826–1829)

Instructions for Officials, Clerks, and Forest Charcoalers (1826) – An Unsuccessful Attempt to Modernize the Governmental Charcoal Industry in the Kingdom of Poland (1826–1829) The article contains the instruction for charcoalers and state officials supervising them, which was developed in 1826 by the Government Commission of Revenues and Treasury of the Kingdom of Poland. The document is provided with a historical commentary. The edited source contains information on charcoaling technology and the organization of charcoal production for the needs of government iron industry. The said instruction was in force between 1827–1828 and was withdrawn at the beginning of 1829.

An Assessment of the Impact of Round Wood Collection on Deforestation in Benue State, Nigeria

Purpose: The high cost of alternative sources of household energy and steel in Nigeria is aggravating the dependence on forest frontiers in search of forest wood for construction, charcoal production, and fuel wood gathering for heating. This necessitates the study to access the impact of Round Wood Collection (proxies as Tree Logging, Charcoal Production, and Fuel Wood Collection) on Deforestation in Benue State, Nigeria.
 Methodology: A survey design research was used for the study with the instrument of a structured questionnaire administered to 400 respondents determined by Taro Yamane’s (1967) sampling formula and selected through two-stage sampling techniques across nine (9) Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Benue State. The data elicited from the field was analyzed through descriptive statistics and a regression with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) 23.
 Findings: The result showed a significant positive relationship between Round Wood Collection (RWC) and Deforestation (DEF) in Benue State, implying that DEF in Benue State will increase significantly by 24.4%, 44.7%, and 28.4% as a result of a percent change in the rate of Tree Logging, Charcoal Production, and Fuel Wood Collection respectively in the state.
 Conclusion: The study concludes that RWC impacts negatively on the forests and vegetation cover in Benue State which has a negative ripple effect on biodiversity, the ozone layer, ecosystem functioning, and livelihoods of forest fringe communities.
 Recommendation: The study recommends that the Benue State government should increase funding to the State Department of Forestry and employ adequate forest personnel to enhance forest management and revenue yields from the forests.

Gasification of charcoal derived from tropical wood residues in an updraft fixed bed reactor

This paper aims to produce hydrogen-rich synthesis gas from the charcoal of three tropical tree species. The approach involves sequentially the production and characterization of charcoal, the production of syngas by air gasification; and then the determination of the composition of syngas. Proximal analysis of charcoal gave ranging from 6.10 to 7.05 %; 71.51 to 77.50 %; 20.14 % to 26 % and 1.83 % to 2.48 % respectively for moisture contents, fixed carbon, volatile matter and ash contents. The gas proportions of the syngas for the three wood species do not vary significantly, with hydrogen content ranging from 20.98 % to 21.88 %, carbon monoxide (CO) from 22.2 % to 23.29 %, H2/CO ratios between 0.91 and 0.98, and the calorific value of the syngas around 6.21 MJ/Nm3. The above results show that the wood residue charcoals of the three species used in this study are suitable for the production of hydrogen-rich syngas.

Automated large‐scale mapping and analysis of relict charcoal hearths in Connecticut (USA) using a Deep Learning YOLOv4 framework

AbstractIn the past decade, numerous studies have successfully mapped thousands of former charcoal production sites (also called relict charcoal hearths) manually using digital elevation model (DEM) data from various forested areas in Europe and the north‐eastern USA. The presence of these sites causes significant changes in the soil physical and chemical properties, referred to as legacy effects, due to high amounts of charcoal that remain in the soils. The overwhelming amount of charcoal hearths found in landscapes necessitates the use of automated methods to map and analyse these landforms. We present a novel approach based on open source data and software, to automatically detect relict charcoal hearths in large‐scale LiDAR datasets (visualized with Simple Local Relief Model). In addition, the approach simultaneously provides both general as well as domain‐specific information, which can be used to further study legacy effects. Different versions of the methodology were fine‐tuned on data from north‐western Connecticut and subsequently tested on two different areas in Connecticut. The results show that these perform adequate, with F1‐scores ranging between 0.21 and 0.76, although additional post‐processing was needed to deal with variations in LiDAR quality. After testing, the best performing version of the prediction model (with an average F1‐score of 0.56) was applied on the entire state of Connecticut. The results show a clear overlap with the known distribution of charcoal hearths in the state, while new concentrations were found as well. This shows the usability of the approach on large‐scale datasets, even when the terrain and LiDAR quality varies.

Physico-chemical and Energy Characteristic of Charcoal Derived from Two (Different) Sarawak Wild Bamboo Species

Bamboo has a very rapid growth rate and has been considered a promising non-wood biomass material that has the potential as a feedstock for charcoal production. This study was carried out to elucidate the physico-chemical and energy characteristic of bamboo charcoal produced from two (2) different species which were Aur Kuning Bamboo and Beting Bamboo. Each bamboo was carbonized at a temperature of 300 to 400oC for a duration of two hours. It was found that the density and volatile matter content of bamboo charcoal have decreased, while the ash content, fixed carbon (FC) content and calorific value (CV) have increased after being converted into charcoal. The results show that Aur Kuning Bamboo has good quality bamboo charcoal in comparison with Beting Bamboo in terms of its FC and CV content. Based on the average value, the FC (82.10%) and CV of Aur Kuning Bamboo (27.23%) were higher than FC (70.42%) and CV (26.05%) of Beting Bamboo with 16.59% (FC) and 4.53% (CV) different. Statistical analysis showed that there was a significant effect for different species of bamboo and a significant correlation between physical and energy properties. In conclusion, Aur Kuning Bamboo harvested from Sarawak wild forest has a higher potential to be a feedstock for charcoal production that will be useful for various applications in the near future.

The size of clearings for charcoal production in miombo woodlands affects soil hydrological properties and soil organic carbon

Charcoal production is a major driver of forest degradation in miombo woodlands. Forests play a crucial role in regulating the hydrological cycle, so it is critical to understand how forest degradation and management practices impact water availability, particularly in drylands. Few studies have examined the effect of forest clearing size on the hydrological functioning of soil, particularly under real-world conditions where, following clearing, forests are subject to multiple and prolonged anthropogenic disturbances, as occurs in miombo woodlands which are cleared for charcoal production and commonly used for livestock grazing. The pilot project Transforming Tanzania's Charcoal Sector was established in 2012 with the aim of establishing a sustainable wood harvesting system for charcoal production based on rotational harvesting cycles that allow for natural forest regeneration. Two clearing sizes were established: large clearings (300 × 300 m) harvested by clear-felling, and small clearings (50 × 50 m) harvested in a checkerboard pattern. We examined the effect of these two clearing sizes on soil hydrological properties and soil organic carbon (SOC) in Kilosa district, Morogoro, Tanzania. Our analysis included four treatments: large clearings, small clearings, small intact plots (unharvested plots within the checkboard pattern), and village land forest reserve. For each treatment we assessed the tree cover and measured soil infiltration capacity, soil bulk density, SOC stock, and texture. We also examined the relationship between these variables and the distance to the closest road to better understand the impact of livestock and human disturbance. Our results show that large clearings had the lowest mean infiltration capacity (121 ± 3 mm h−1) and SOC stock content (12 ± 0.2 tonnes ha−1), and the highest bulk density (1.6 ± 0.005 g cm−3) of all the treatments. We found a positive relationship between infiltration capacity and basal area (R2 = 0.71) across all treatments. We also found that infiltration capacity, SOC stock and tree basal area increased with increasing distance from the closest road, while bulk density decreased. We conclude that, in terms of their impact on soil hydrological functioning and SOC stock, small clearings, while not completely unaffected, are better than larger ones. In small clearings, concurrent reductions in tree cover and a relatively low impact on soil hydrological properties could result in increased soil and groundwater recharge compared to unharvested forest areas. Controlling livestock grazing can further minimize soil degradation, producing additional gains.

Issues and challenges of forests protecting in Sahel countries

This article considers the main problems contributing to the reduction of forest resources in six Sahelian countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Chad) that threaten the achievement of their goals of regional stability and socio-economic development. The study finds its interest in the fact that it will make it possible to determine the climatic, energy and security constraints in the preservation of forest species in the Sahel. The methodology was based on carrying out documentary collections and analysis, cartographic analyzes, data processing and analysis. The study revealed that the issues and challenges of protecting forest areas are classified into three categories: climate change, energy issue due to the absence of new and renewable energies, poor coverage of electricity networks, high dependence of Sahelian communities on biomass and conflicts in the Sahel.  It is estimated that today more than 65 million people in this region do not have access to electricity, and 90 million still depend on the traditional use of biomass for cooking food. Considering these constraints will make it possible to find solutions to the evils of the Sahel through joint action between States, States and their partners and with communities. Key words: deforestation, Sahel, protection, threats, drought, charcoal production, energy consumption.  

Seasonal land use/land cover change and the drivers in Kafta Sheraro national park, Tigray, Ethiopia

Kafta Sheraro National Park (KSNP) has experienced rapid and consecutive destruction of dry woodland vegetation due to the influence of anthropogenic activities in the past three decades. However, to date, the change in woodland cover and its driving factors have not been addressed. This study aims to assess the spatial and temporal trends of land use/land cover change, seasonal vegetation cover change via the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and human-induced drivers of change that occurred in the KSNP between 1988 and 2018 by using satellite imagery sensors (TM, ETM+, OLI), field observations, and local community interview data. The 2018 image results showed kappa coefficients of the dry season and wet season of 0.90 and 0.845, respectively. There was a continuous decline in woodland (29.38%) and riparian vegetation (47.11%) and an increasing trend in shrub bush land (35.28%), grassland (43.47%), bare land (27.52%), and cultivated land (118.36 km2) over the thirty-year period. Moreover, the results showed that bare land expanded from wet to drier months, while cultivated land and grazing land increased from dry to wet months. Based on the NDVI results, high to moderate vegetation was decreased by 21.47%, while sparse and non-vegetation expanded by 19.8% and 1.7%, respectively. Settlement and agricultural expansion, human-induced fire, firewood collection, gold mining, and charcoal production were the major proximate drivers that negatively affected park resources. Around KSNP, the local communities’ livelihood depends on farming (crop and livestock production). This expansion of farming is the main driver of woodland depletion, which leads to increased resource competition and a challenge for the survival of wildlife. Therefore, urgent sustainable conservation of park biodiversity by encouraging community participation in conservation practices and preparing awareness creation programs should be mandatory.

Volumetric imaging by micro computed tomography: a suitable tool for wood identification of charcoal

Summary The present study focuses on the application of state-of-the-art μCT, by using a sub-micrometre CT scanner as a tool for wood identification. Charcoal was chosen as a subject for this case study. The reason for choosing charcoal is based on economic as well as technical issues. Parallel to conventional wood anatomy, various promising approaches to identification are currently being developed worldwide in order to simplify the identification of processed wood. However, due to the carbonization process, such approaches are not applicable to charcoal. In view of the rapid development of μCT technology, it was decided to examine the extent to which wood anatomical studies can be supported and improved by modern μCT technology. About 17% of the annually harvested wood worldwide is converted to charcoal (FAO 2017), and the charcoal trade is one of the least controlled/monitored segments of the European timber market. Although charcoal has a significant market share of wood-based products, it is still not yet covered by any trade regulation, e.g. the European Timber Regulations (EUTR), (EU) No995/2010. For the present study, different wood types and the anatomical fine structural features were measured and displayed at different magnifications to visualize the performance of state-of-the-art μCT standards. Three different charcoal assortments were examined, and the results were checked against the given declarations of contents. The aim of this work is to evaluate the potential of the μCT technique in the field of wood identification and to assess its use for the regulatory control of charcoal and other wood products in the international timber trade. The results are encouraging and lead to the conclusion that the application of the μCT technique in the field of wood identification can be classified as very promising for the future.

Determents of sustainable charcoal production in AWI zone; the case of Fagita Lekoma district, Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, the trend of production and consumption of charcoal is found to be increasing in the regions' major towns and cities, particularly in Figita Lekoma district. However, little attention is given to sustainable charcoal production in the study area. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to assess determents to sustainable charcoal production in the Fagita Lekoma district. The study used a cross-sectional survey design for data collection and analysis as well as a purposive sampling technique to select samples from the household. The required data for the study was collected from both primary and secondary sources by employing data collection instruments such as household surveys, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. The collected data was analyzed by inferential statistics (binary logistic regression) to analyze the determinants of charcoal production and to determine whether there are any statistically significant differences between charcoal produced and non-produced in the study area. According to the survey results, the most significant challenges for charcoal production were a lack of land, improved production technology, and perception. The results of the logistic regression model reveal that age of the household head, education, and family size were found to significantly influence charcoal production at less than a 10% probability level, while perception, methods, and land holding size were significant at less than a 5% probability level. Responsible institutions and planners should focus on the effects of earth mound kilns charcoal production on environments'. Charcoal production methods should be improved, and the government should have to give attention to sustainable charcoal production to make economically viable and environmentally friendly to reduce emissions.

From Wooded Savannah to Farmland and Settlement: Population Growth, Drought, Energy Needs and Cotton Price Incentives Driving Changes in Wacoro, Mali

Land includes vegetation and water bodies and provides the basis for human livelihoods through primary production, food and freshwater supply, and multiple other ecosystem services. The last three decades have recorded frequent drought events as well as rapid population growth, which has often resulted in adverse land use and land cover change (LULCC) in the Sahel of Sub-Saharan Africa. In order to propose sustainable land management strategies, it is a prerequisite to investigate the rate of LULCC and its driving factors in specific locations. This study investigated the case of Wacoro municipality in Mali using a combined approach of remote sensing, Geographic Information Systems, and focus group discussions. Satellite images and local people’s perceptions on LULCC and drivers were collected and analyzed for the years 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020. We found that the study area faced a rapid decrease in wooded savannah that was degraded and converted to shrub savannah and later to farmland and settlement. Changes were directly or indirectly related to the rapid population growth, high cotton price (which encouraged cropland expansion), drought, firewood extraction, and charcoal production, which was exacerbated by poverty. We suggest promoting integrated land management strategies that consider current and future livelihood needs and preserve the environment for the benefits of future generations. New agricultural policies, such as cotton price incentives, should always be accompanied by an assessment of their potential environmental impacts and design of adequate mitigation measures.