L2 Production Research Articles

Symmetric Functions and Rings of Multinumbers Associated with Finite Groups

In this paper, we introduce ωn-symmetric polynomials associated with the finite group ωn, which consists of roots of unity, and groups of permutations acting on the Cartesian product of Banach spaces ℓ1. These polynomials extend the classical notions of symmetric and supersymmetric polynomials on ℓ1. We explore algebraic bases in the algebra of ωn-symmetric polynomials and derive corresponding generating functions. Building on this foundation, we construct rings of multisets (multinumbers), defined as equivalence classes on the underlying space under the action of ωn-symmetric polynomials, and investigate their fundamental properties. Furthermore, we examine the ring of integer multinumbers associated with the group ωn, proving that it forms an integral domain when n is prime or n=4.

Task Sequencing and L2 Production: A Research Synthesis and Meta‐Analysis

ABSTRACTThere is a growing focus on examining how the order of tasks impacts oral and written output in a second language, particularly concerning syntactic complexity, accuracy, lexical complexity, and fluency (CALF). Despite previous studies, the findings have been inconsistent. This research synthesis and meta‐analysis, centered around Robinson's (2010) SSARC model of pedagogical task sequencing, aims to: firstly, analyze the types of tasks used in investigating task sequencing and its effects on L2 production; secondly, explore the definitions of task complexity and task sequence in research on task sequencing and its impacts on L2 production; thirdly, examine the metrics of CALF in the study of task sequence and its effect on L2 production; and finally, assess the effects of task sequence on CALF in L2 production. The results show consistencies in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research regarding the manipulation of task sequencing, particularly the progression from simple to complex tasks using features that direct or disperse cognitive resources. Our findings demonstrate positive effects for the sequence of tasks from simple to complex on syntactic complexity and accuracy of L2 production, regardless of the mode of production. In contrast, random task sequencing primarily impacts the accuracy of L2 production, particularly in oral production.

The effects of language dominance on the L1 and L2 tone production of Mandarin-Cantonese bilinguals.

The present study investigated the effects of language dominance on the cross-linguistic influence in the first and second languages (L1 and L2) of lexical tone production by Mandarin-Cantonese late bilinguals. Although the participants were unable to retain their L1 tonal system or to fully acquire the L2 tonal system after long-term exposure to their L2, certain correlations emerged between language dominance and tone production in L1 and L2. These findings add to the existing literature on language dominance and support the general assumption that bilinguals' two languages interfere with each other.

Comparing Measuring Methods for Speech Timing During Rapid Automatic Naming Tasks Using Arabic and English Bilingual Adults

Rapid automatized naming (RAN) tasks have been used to assess word retrieval speed and reading speed. However, measures of reading rate may be affected by structural differences between languages. This study was designed to measure talking speed differences in the utterances of a group of speakers whose first language (L1) was Arabic and second language (L2) was English. Three hypotheses were tested: the language structure differences would result in L2 productions with slower utterance rates; the L2 speaking rate would be characterized by greater utterance interruptions than the L1; and the articulation rate would more accurately indicate the naming speeds of the participants. Twenty Arabic- and English-speaking young adults completed RAN tasks for number and object naming in both languages. Utterance rate, speaking rate, and articulation rate were measured. The participants exhibited similar utterance durations in the two languages and utterance rate in words per second, but faster utterance rates in Arabic when measuring the utterance rate in syllables per second. They exhibited more pauses and longer pauses during the English productions, particularly for the object naming. Finally, the speaking rate in syllables per second and articulation rate in syllables per second were equivalent as utterance rates.

Neural representations of phonological information in bilingual language production.

Previous research has explored the neural mechanisms of bilinguals' language production, but most studies focused on neural mechanisms of cognitive control during language production. Therefore, it is unclear which brain regions represent lexical information (especially phonological information) during production and how they are affected by language context. To address those questions, we used representational similarity analysis to explore neural representations of phonological information in native (L1) and second languages (L2) in the single- and mixed-language contexts, respectively. Results showed that Chinese-English bilinguals behaviorally performed worse and exhibited more activations in brain regions associated with language processing and cognitive control in the mixed-language context relative to the single-language context. Further representational similarity analysis revealed that phonological representations of L1 were detected in the left pars opercularis, middle frontal gyrus, and anterior supramarginal gyrus, while phonological representations of L2 were detected in the bilateral occipitotemporal cortex regardless of the target language. More interestingly, robust phonological representations of L1 were observed in brain areas related to phonological processing during L2 production regardless of language context. These results provide direct neuroimaging evidence for the nonselective processing hypothesis and highlight the superiority of phonological representations in the dominant language during bilingual language production.

The role of L1-dialect in L2 production

Abstract This study compared the productions of American English (AE) vowels /i/, /u/, /ɛ/, /ɔ/, /ɪ/, /æ/, /ʊ/, /ʌ/, and /ɑ/ between speakers of two Chinese dialects, the Leshan dialect (LSd) and the Xining dialect (XNd). The participants were native speakers of XNd (n = 120) and LSd (n = 120) with advanced English proficiency. Their vowel productions were compared with those of 22 native AE speakers. The results showed that (1) XNd and LSd participants significantly differed in F1 and/or F2 from AE participants when producing /ɪ/, /æ/, /ʌ/, and /ʊ/ and /ɪ/, /ɑ/, /ɔ/, and /ʌ/, respectively; (2) compared with AE participants, XNd participants had significantly longer durations of /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /ʌ/, /ɛ/, and /æ/, and LSd participants had significantly longer durations of /ɪ/, /ʌ/, and /ɛ/. Overall, the vowels that differed in production from that of native speakers were absent in both the L1 dialects and L1 of participants.

BOOK REVIEW: CORPUS LINGUISTICS AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: PERSPECTIVES, ISSUES, FINDINGS

This article discusses the application of corpus linguistic methods in second language acquisition (SLA) research. It highlights the significance of utilizing native and learner corpora, along with automated tools for corpus annotation and analysis, to explore various aspects of SLA. The article is based on a book titled "Corpus Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition: Perspectives, Issues, Findings," which covers five chapters. These chapters delve into topics such as variations in L2 usage at a group level, factors influencing L2 processing and production, group-level longitudinal trajectories of L2 development, and inter- and intra-learner variability in L2 development. The book aims to provide valuable insights and methodologies for researchers interested in employing corpus linguistic methods to enhance their SLA research.

Validation of GEMS tropospheric NO2 columns and their diurnal variation with ground-based DOAS measurements

Abstract. Instruments for air quality observations on geostationary satellites provide multiple observations per day and allow for the analysis of the diurnal variation in important air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The South Korean instrument GEMS (Geostationary Environmental Monitoring Spectrometer), launched in February 2020, is the first geostationary instrument that is able to observe the diurnal variation in NO2. The measurements have a spatial resolution of 3.5 km × 8 km and cover a large part of Asia. This study compares 1 year of tropospheric NO2 vertical column density (VCD) observations from the operational GEMS L2 product, the scientific GEMS IUP-UB (Institute of Environmental Physics at the University of Bremen) product, the operational TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) product, and ground-based differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) measurements in South Korea. The GEMS L2 tropospheric NO2 VCDs overestimate the ground-based tropospheric NO2 VCDs with a median relative difference of +61 % and a correlation coefficient of 0.76. The median relative difference is −2 % for the GEMS IUP-UB product and −16 % for the TROPOMI product, with correlation coefficients of 0.83 and 0.89, respectively. The scatter in the GEMS products can be reduced when observations are limited to the TROPOMI overpass time. Diurnal variations in tropospheric NO2 VCDs differ by the pollution level of the analyzed site but with good agreement between the GEMS IUP-UB and ground-based observations. Low-pollution sites show weak or almost no diurnal variation. In summer, the polluted sites show a minimum around noon, indicating the large influence of photochemical loss. Most variation is seen in spring and autumn, with increasing NO2 in the morning, a maximum close to noon, and a decrease towards the afternoon. Winter observations show rather flat or slightly decreasing NO2 throughout the day. Winter observations under low-wind-speed conditions at high-pollution sites show enhancements of NO2 throughout the day. This indicates that under calm conditions, dilution and the less effective chemical loss in winter do not balance the accumulating emissions. Diurnal variation observed at a low-pollution site follows seasonal wind patterns. A weekday–weekend effect analysis shows good agreement between the different products. However, the GEMS L2 product, while agreeing with the other data sets on weekdays, shows significantly less reduction on weekends. The influence of the stratospheric contribution and the surface reflectivity product on the satellite tropospheric NO2 VCD products is investigated. While the TM5 model's stratospheric VCDs, used in the TROPOMI product, are too high, resulting in tropospheric NO2 VCDs that are too low and even negative, when used in the GEMS IUP-UB retrieval, the GEMS L2 stratospheric VCD is too low. Surface reflectivity comparisons indicate that the GEMS L2 reflectivity makes a large contribution to the observed overestimation and scatter.

Exploring the Impact of Handwriting vs. Keyboarding on L2 Assessments: Biases, Integrity, Authenticity, and Literacies

Is paper or computer better for assessing L2 students’ writing? The ineluctable transition to technology might suggest this question has already been answered. However, the technology divide in L2 assessments may have indeed widened since the pandemic: whereas some teachers have fully embraced technology in assessments as in instruction, others are reluctant to eliminate paper, owing to concerns about the reliability, integrity and authenticity of L2 production on computer. This article shares observations from several French classes at an American high school in which assessments that were otherwise identical were offered to students on both paper and computer. These observations revealed several overlapping areas of L2 research that merit further consideration, including instructor bias between media, academic integrity of student work, and the need to align the technological literacies between instructors and students. The reflection that follows points to specific directions for further empirical research on the effects of input medium on L2 learners in K-12 and higher education.

Translanguaging in content assessment: voices, experiences and practices of EMI university students

Abstract While translanguaging has gained significant traction as a theory of language that holds implications for educational settings with students from various language backgrounds, its viability in content assessment remains an unresolved issue. Students in English-medium instruction (EMI) programs at a private university in Türkiye participated in content exams that did not impose any language constraints, and follow-up interviews were conducted to probe into the participants’ language-related EMI experiences and the factors that affected their language use in their responses. Student reports showed that L1 was used by instructors to explain complex concepts or when students’ comprehension was challenged. Students used both English and L1 materials for studying, and in group and individual work, a mix of English and L1 was common, driven by the aim of cognitive efficiency and overcoming language barriers. In the content exams, both monolingual and translingual practices were employed by the participants, and their language use was mainly associated with relative proficiency in L2, encoding-retrieval match, and compartmentalization of languages. The study demonstrates that students encounter challenges in L2 comprehension and production in lessons and exams and that offering language flexibility in content exams may serve as a temporary accommodation that allows fuller expression of content knowledge, particularly in time-constrained exams.

Stance-taking through APPRAISAL in L1 and L2 English argumentative essays: insights from Vietnamese L2 English

Abstract Stance-taking in academic writing is now a well-established topic of interest in English language research, with explorations across a range of theoretical frameworks including metadiscourse and systemic functional linguistics (SFL). This includes studies investigating second language (L2) stance-taking, particularly those comparing stance features deployed by L1 and L2 English writers. However, studies investigating stance-taking using the APPRAISAL framework for evaluative discursive language across L1 and L2 production are relatively rare. Incorporating the APPRAISAL framework into research on stance-taking enhances our comprehension of evaluative language in academic writing, especially when it comes to cross-linguistic contexts. It also provides useful advantages for language assessment and instruction. In this learner corpus-assisted discourse study, APPRAISAL was used to determine how L1 English speakers and L2 English learners from L1 Vietnamese backgrounds expressed attitudes through their written texts. We also investigate the relationship between use of APPRAISAL resources and expert raters’ perceptions of written stance via a stance rubric. Findings show L2 English students are more explicit in argumentative writing than L1 English writers, despite fewer APPRAISAL choices in L2 texts. Besides, while high-rated texts were associated with more judgemental evaluation and invocation, more personal feelings were expressed in low-rated texts. These findings have implications for the instruction of L2 writers in conveying attitudinal meanings in text, as well as for raters tasked with assessing L2 academic essays for stance.

Phonetic L2 development and phonetic attrition in L1 Arabic L2 English immigrants’ voiced stop production

This study investigates the impact of L2 development in L1 Arabic L2 English speakers on their L1 voiced stop production during a word reading task potentially indicating a use-driven aspect to phonetic attrition in immigrants' speech. The study involved 10 participants who have been residing in the US for durations ranging from 1 to 24 years. Previous research on the influence of L2 exposure on L1 speech found conflicting results: some studies suggest stronger phonetic attrition following prolonged immersion, while others emphasize changes in the early stages of exposure (Flege, 1987; Chang, 2012; 2013). They used The Speech Learning Model (SLM) to explain their findings by focusing on SLM predictions on L1 production. However, addressing changes in L1 speech without accounting for L2 speech and its developmental effects, a gap noted in previous studies, seems inaccurate. The L1-L2 link is essential to SLM. Therefore, this study aims to address this gap. The results indicate a correlation between L2 development and L1 production of voiced stops, with voice onset times being the measured phonetic dimension. Participants demonstrating higher proficiency in L2 tend to exhibit L1 speech that more closely mirrors L2 characteristics, suggesting a link between L1 production and L2 development.

The Significance of the Long‐Wavelength Correction for Studies of Baroclinic Tides With SWOT

AbstractThe long‐wavelength correction (LWC) of SWOT data is intended to reduce errors related to the stability of the SWOT antenna and its attitude in orbit. The algorithms used to compute the LWC utilize SWOT KaRIn sea surface‐height (SSH) measurements and additional data, and the LWC may absorb geophysical SSH into the correction. Different LWC algorithms are used on the L2 and L3 SWOT products, which are analyzed here during the 1 day repeat (Cal/Val) mission phase lasting approximately 100 days. During this mission phase the SSH anomaly (SSHA) computed using the L3 LWC is much more realistic than the L2 LWC, as shown here by comparing spatial statistics of the L2 and L3 products. The L3 LWC algorithm is nonlinear insofar as it depends on second‐order statistics of the SSHA and multi‐satellite SSHA differences, making it difficult to quantify the extent to which it could absorb baroclinic tidal signals. To overcome this difficulty, a proxy L3 LWC algorithm is developed which mimics the L3 LWC but is strictly linear in the SSHA. The proxy LWC is applied to both idealized waveforms and to the predicted internal tide available on the products, and it is found to absorb 1% or less of the signal variance, leading to corresponding pointwise errors of 10% or less. Because the errors are at longer wavelengths and are significantly smaller amplitude than internal tide signals, the LWC impact on the measurement and interpretation of internal tides with SWOT is expected to be negligible in most applications.

The adjoint Rayleigh and Orr-Sommerfeld equations: Green function and eigenmodes

The Rayleigh and Orr-Sommerfeld equations are ODEs which arise from the linearized Euler and Navier-Stokes equation around a shear flow. In this paper, we consider the adjoints of the Rayleigh and Orr-Sommerfeld equations on [0,∞) with respect to the complex L2 product. In the viscous case, we consider a family of viscosity-dependent Navier boundary conditions, which in the limit corresponds to the no-slip condition. We rigorously establish existence and asymptotic properties of their eigenvalues, eigenmodes and Green functions away from critical layers. The adjoint operators are useful because they also allow us to deduce properties about the kernels and images of the original operators.

L1 production following brief L2 exposure: Evidence for cross-talk across comprehension and production.

Language control allows bilinguals to fluently shift between their languages. Here, we tested whether comprehension and production tasks initiate language control processes to the same extent, and whether these processes operate over specific concepts or globally. Seventy Hebrew-English bilinguals completed an L1 picture-naming production task in the first and third blocks, and either a reading aloud (word production) or an animacy judgment (word comprehension) task in their L2 in the second block. Further, concepts were either repeated across blocks or not. Results showed more filled pauses in the third block relative to the first block. Additionally, the size of this blocked-language order effect was similar following word production and word comprehension tasks in the L2, suggesting that production and comprehension tasks were similarly efficient in instigating control processes. Finally, both recurring and new concepts were affected, suggesting that mostly global language control is at play. These findings provide constraining evidence for fully understanding the scope of bilingual language control.

An optimally convergent Fictitious Domain method for interface problems

We introduce a novel Fictitious Domain (FD) unfitted method for interface problems associated with a second-order elliptic linear differential operator, that achieves optimal convergence without the need for adaptive mesh refinements nor enrichments of the Finite Element spaces. The key aspect of the proposed method is that it extends the solution into the fictitious domain in a way that ensures high global regularity. Continuity of the solution across the interface is enforced through a boundary Lagrange multiplier. The subdomains coupling, however, is not achieved by means of the duality pairing with the Lagrange multiplier, but through an L2 product with the H1 Riesz representative of the latter, thus avoiding gradient jumps across the interface. Thanks to the enhanced regularity, the proposed method attains an increase, with respect to standard FD methods, of up to one order of convergence in energy norm. The Finite Element formulation of the method is presented, followed by its analysis. Numerical tests on a model problem demonstrate its effectiveness and its superior accuracy compared to standard unfitted methods.

How do constructions with modal verbs develop in second language learners of English?

Abstract The study reported on in this paper uses data from a large, pseudolongitudinal corpus of second language (L2) learner writing to investigate how L2 knowledge of verb-argument constructions (VACs) develops from low-beginner to upper-intermediate proficiency levels. The focus is on learners from two L1 backgrounds (L1 German and L1 Spanish) and on a subset of VACs that contain modal auxiliaries in combination with lexical verbs (e.g., subject-modal-verb, as in I can cook). For each VAC, L1, and proficiency level, frequency lists of verbs were created and compared across datasets. Reference data on the same constructions was extracted from a corpus of L1 writing. Results suggest that modal VACs become more frequent, less predictable, more productive, and more aligned with L1 production as learner proficiency increases. The findings of this study help to expand our understanding of the processes that underlie L2 construction acquisition.

The potential influence of cross-linguistic lexical similarity on lexical diversity in L2 English writing

We examined the potential influence of L1–L2 lexical similarity on L2 lexical diversity, to determine whether the robust facilitative effect of lexical similarity that is found in processing and broad learning outcomes extends to this measure of L2 production. Our sample included two matching learner sub-corpora, containing 8,500 and 6,390 English texts, written in response to ninety-five and seventy-one writing tasks, by speakers of nine typologically diverse L1s, in the A1–B2 cefr range of L2 English proficiency. We found that lexical similarity did not influence L2 lexical diversity at any proficiency level. This finding suggests that the facilitative effect of similarity does not necessarily extend to L2 production, at least in the case of certain global measures, like lexical diversity, and certain task-based settings, like the present educational one, where lexical choices are driven primarily by the constrained communicative needs of the tasks. This is supported by the strong task effects that we found, which we quantified using mixed-effects models, whilst also shedding light on the use of lexical diversity as an indicator of L2 proficiency.

L2 Spanish clitics among Brazilian Portuguese-speaking learners: the predictive role of lexical knowledge

We examined the acquisition of third-person accusative clitics (e.g., lo, la, los, las) in L2 Spanish among Brazilian Portuguese (BP) speakers. In BP, the animacy of the referent is the main feature constraining accusative pronoun use while, in Spanish, animacy does not affect clitic realization. We tested Lardiere’s (2008; 2009) Feature Reassembly Hypothesis (FRH), Schwartz & Sprouse’s (1996) Full Transfer/Full Access hypothesis (FT/FA), and the suitability of productive vocabulary knowledge as a proxy for overall proficiency and its predictive power for the acquisition of clitics. 74 BP-speaking L2 Spanish learners and a comparison group of 23 native Spanish speakers completed a language background questionnaire, a vocabulary test (Prueba Léxica de Español y Portugués/Prova Léxica de Espanhol e Português, PLEP), an elicited production task, and an acceptability judgment task. Only the L2 Spanish participants completed the tasks in both languages. Our findings are consistent with the FRH, showing that the participants successfully disassemble animacy features from their L1 when acquiring the non-animacy-driven clitics in Spanish. However, animacy effects were found in the L2 production data but not in their receptive grammatical knowledge. Furthermore, animacy effects were not dependent on proficiency as no interactions between these factors were found, thus rejecting the existence of a full transfer stage.

Improving PRISMA hyperspectral spatial resolution and geolocation by using Sentinel-2: development and test of an operational procedure in urban and rural areas

Hyperspectral (HS) satellites like PRISMA (PRecursore IperSpettrale della Missione Applicativa) offer remarkable capabilities, yet they are constrained by a relatively coarse spatial resolution, curbing their efficacy in those applications that require pinpoint accuracy. Here we propose a fusion process, aimed at the enhancement of PRISMA HS spatial resolution by using the spatial and spectral information of Sentinel-2 multispectral (MS) data (HS-MS fusion process), validated against four airborne HS flights simultaneous to satellite overpasses on different land use distributions. Adopting the PRISMA panchromatic (PAN) image, the proposed solution was also compared with the results of a HS-PAN pansharpening process. A two-steps operational workflow is proposed, based on two state-of-the-art and open-source algorithms. The first step consisted of the geocoding of PRISMA L2 products using Senintel-2 as reference and was accomplished with the phase-based algorithm implemented in AROSICS (Automated and Robust Open-Source Image Co-registration Software). The geometric displacement in L2 data was found to be between 80 m and 250 m, irregularly spatially distributed throughout the same scene and among scenes, and it was corrected by means of thousands of regularly spatially distributed tie points. A second-order polynomial transformation function was integrated in the algorithm. The second step consisted of employing the HySure (HS Super resolution) fusion algorithm to perform both the HS-MS fusion and the HS-PAN pansharpening, returning a PRISMA HS improved dataset with a spatial resolution of 10 m and 5 m, respectively. Four different per-band accuracy metrics were used to evaluate the accuracy of both products against airborne data. Overall, HS-MS data achieved increased accuracy in all validation metrics, i.e. + 28 % (root mean square error, RMSE), +23 % (spectral angle mapper, SAM), +7% (peak signal-to-noise ratio, PSNR) and + 11 % (universal image quality index, UIQI), with respect of HS-PAN data. These outcomes showed that using the spectral information of Sentinel-2 both spectral and spatial patterns were reconstructed more consistently in three different urban and rural scenarios, avoiding the presence of blur and at-edge artefacts as opposed to HS-PAN pansharpening, therefore suggesting an optimal strategy for satellite HS data resolution enhancement.