Second Language Processing Research Articles

Maturational Constraints on the Recruitment of Early Processes for Syntactic Processing

An enduring question in the study of second-language acquisition concerns the relative contributions of age of acquisition (AOA) and ultimate linguistic proficiency to neural organization for second-language processing. Several ERP and neuroimaging studies of second-language learners have found that neural organization for syntactic processing is sensitive to delays in second-language acquisition. However, such delays in second-language acquisition are typically associated with lower language proficiency, rendering it difficult to assess whether differences in AOA or proficiency lead to these effects. Here we examined the effects of delayed second-language acquisition while controlling for proficiency differences by examining participants who differ in AOA but who were matched for proficiency in the same language. We compared the ERP response to auditory English phrase structure violations in a group of late learners of English matched for grammatical proficiency with a group of English native speakers. In the native speaker group, violations elicited a bilateral and prolonged anterior negativity, with onset at 100 msec, followed by a posterior positivity (P600). In contrast, in the nonnative speaker group, violations did not elicit the early anterior negativity, but did elicit a P600 which was more widespread spatially and temporally than that of the native speaker group. These results suggest that neural organization for syntactic processing is sensitive to delays in language acquisition independently of proficiency level. More specifically, they suggest that both early and later syntactic processes are sensitive to maturational constraints. These results also suggest that late learners who reach a high level of second-language proficiency rely on different neural mechanisms than native speakers of that language.

WE COULD HAVE LOVED AND LOST, OR WE NEVER COULD HAVE LOVE AT ALL

This study investigated sentence-processing strategies adopted by advanced nonnative speakers (NNSs) and native speakers (NSs) of English in the context of an English structure with which NNSs reportedly have an acquisition difficulty (e.g., Swan & Smith, 2001)—namely, modal perfect (MP). Participants read MP sentences such as He could have worked at the shoe factory and closely related analogous sentences (e.g., He could have work at the shoe factory), and reading times and errors were measured in an online grammaticality-judgment task. It was hypothesized that NSs would have a processing preference for MP sentences compared to the analogues, reflecting the primacy of syntactic information in NS processing and a preference for late closure, whereas NNSs would show no such preference because they rely less on syntactic information when processing sentences. The results revealed, however, that both NSs and NNSs read MP sentences more quickly and with fewer errors than the closely related analogues, consistent with a processing preference for MP sentences. Both groups were also influenced by word-category frequency information, which moderated, but did not fundamentally alter, their syntactic preference for MP. The significance of these findings is discussed in terms of models of second-language sentence processing and NNSs’ reported MP acquisition difficulty.

Reduced frontal activation with increasing 2nd language proficiency

The factors influencing the degree of separation or overlap in the neuronal networks responsible for the processing of first and second language are still subject to investigation. This longitudinal study investigates how increasing second language proficiency influences activation differences during lexico-semantic processing of first and second language. Native English speaking exchange students learning German were examined with functional magnetic resonance imaging while reading words in three different languages at two points in time: at the beginning of their stay (day 1) and 5 months later (day 2), when second language proficiency had significantly increased. On day 1, second language words evoked more frontal activation than words from the mother tongue. These differences were diminished on day 2. We therefore conclude that with increasing second language proficiency, lexico-semantic processing of second language words needs less frontal control. Our results demonstrate that lexico-semantic processing of first and second language converges onto similar networks as second language proficiency increases.

First language polysemy affects second language meaning interpretation: evidence for activation of first language concepts during second language reading

The present study investigates the influence of first language (L1) lexicalization patterns on the processing of second language (L2) words in sentential contexts by advanced German learners of English. The focus was on cases where a polysemous word in the L1 is realized by independent words in the L2, e.g. German Blase realized by English bubble and blister. An anomaly detection task was used in which participants had to indicate whether a target word formed an acceptable completion to a sentence. The critical condition was where the other sense ( blister) of the translation equivalent Blase was appropriate, but the word ( bubble) did not complete the sentence meaningfully, e.g. 'His shoes were uncomfortable due to a bubble.' This was compared to a control condition in which neither sense of the L1 translation made sense, e.g. 'She was very hungry because of a bubble.' Factors of word type (noun vs. verb) and degree of relatedness of L1 senses (high vs. moderate) were also manipulated. Relative to native speakers of English, advanced German learners made more errors and displayed longer correct response times in the critical condition compared to the control condition. An effect of meaning relatedness was obtained for nouns but not verbs. The results are discussed in terms of the role of lexical-level translation connections in activating L1 concepts from L2 words, even in highly proficient learners and in all-L2 tasks.

Effect of syntactic similarity on cortical activation during second language processing: A comparison of English and Japanese among native Korean trilinguals

In this study of native Korean trilinguals we examined the effect of syntactic similarity between first (L1) and second (L2) languages on cortical activation during the processing of Japanese and English, which are, respectively, very similar to and different from Korean. Subjects had equivalent proficiency in Japanese and English. They performed auditory sentence comprehension tasks in Korean, Japanese, and English during functional MRI (fMRI). The bilateral superior temporal cortex was activated during the comprehension of three languages. The pars triangularis of the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) was additionally activated for L2 processing. Furthermore, the right cerebellum, the pars opercularis of the left IFG, and the posteriomedial part of the superior frontal gyrus were activated during the English tasks only. We observed significantly greater activation in the pars opercularis of the left IFG, the right cerebellum, and the right superior temporal cortex during the English than Japanese task; activation in these regions did not differ significantly between Korean and Japanese. Differential activation of the pars opercularis of the left IFG and the right cerebellum likely reflects syntactic distance and differential activation in the right superior temporal cortex may reflect the prosodic distance between English from Korean and Japanese. Furthermore, in the pars oparcularis of the left IFG and the right cerebellum, significant negative correlation between the activation and duration of exposure was observed for English, but not for Japanese. Our research supports the notion that linguistic similarity between L1 and L2 affects the cortical processing of second language.

The Impact of Proficiency on Syntactic Second-language Processing of German and Italian: Evidence from Event-related Potentials

The present study investigated the role of proficiency in late second-language (L2) processing using comparable stimuli in German and Italian. Both sets of stimuli consisted of simple active sentences including a word category violation, a morphosyntactic agreement violation, or a combination of the two. Four experiments were conducted to study high- and low-proficiency L2 learners of German as well as high- and low-proficiency L2 learners of Italian. High-proficiency L2 learners in both languages showed the same event-related potential (ERP) components as native speakers for all syntactic violations. For the word category violation, they displayed an early anterior negativity (ELAN), an additional negativity reflecting reference-related processes, and a late P600 evidencing processes of reanalysis. For the processing of the morphosyntactic error, an anterior negativity (LAN) and a P600 were observed, whereas for the combined violation, the same ERP components were found as in the pure category violation. In high-proficiency L2 learners, the timing of the processing steps was equivalent to that of native speakers, although some amplitude differences were present. Low-proficiency L2 learners, however, showed qualitative differences in the agreement violation characterized by the absence of the LAN and quantitative differences reflected in a delayed P600 in every violation condition. These findings emphasize that with a high proficiency, late L2 learners can indeed show native-like neural responses with the timing approximating that of native speakers. This challenges the idea that there are fundamental differences in language processing in the brain between natives and late L2 learners.

Mapping of verbal working memory in nonfluent Chinese–English bilinguals with functional MRI

Existing cognitive and neural imaging studies have suggested a frontoparietal network of multiple, cooperative components for verbal working memory (WM). We used functional MRI to investigate whether this neural network is also involved in the processing of second language by nonfluent bilinguals. Twelve (five males, seven females) native Chinese speakers who had limited English proficiency were scanned while performing working memory tasks in Chinese and English. They were asked to make judgment continuously whether the word presented on the screen was semantically related to (i.e., the semantic tasks) another word presented two words earlier. On a different task (i.e., the phonological tasks), they were asked to make judgment whether the target word rhymed with the other word. A naming and judgment task in each language was adopted to control for the visual process, initial lexical process, and motor responses. Behavioral data showed that subjects performed better at tasks in their native language (Chinese, L1) than in English (L2). Imaging results showed that all working memory tasks in both L1 and L2 elicited a very similar pattern of left-hemisphere-dominated activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, pars opercularis region, pars triangularis region, precentral cortex, and parietal lobule. Consistent with the behavioral data, the volume of activation in the left opercularis region, left parietal lobule, and right precentral region was greater for L2 than for L1. These results suggest that working memory in L1 and L2 is mediated by a unitary neural system (i.e., frontoparietal region), which is capable of recruiting surrounding cortical resources to meet the increased computational demand caused by low L2 proficiency.

The Importance of Phonological Coding in Visual Word Recognition: Further Evidence from Second-Language Processing

Silent word reading does not rely exclusively on orthographic information but involves the activation of the phonology of words, as is revealed by the phonological priming effect in the masked priming paradigm. Thus far, the phonological priming effect has been documented mainly in monolinguals and bilinguals recognizing words in their first language. We provide evidence that the effect is equally strong in second language processing, even for bilinguals who acquired the second language at the age of 10-12 years in a school setting. This finding suggests that phonological coding is not a mere by-product of the fact that beginning readers try to map an orthographic representation to an already well-established phonological representation.

Towards a unified account of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language knowledge

This article argues for the need to reconcile symbolist and connectionist accounts of (second) language learning by propounding nine claims, aimed at integrating accounts of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language (L2) knowledge. Knowledge representation is claimed to be possible both in the form of symbols and rules and in the form of networks with layers of hidden units representing knowledge in a distributed, subsymbolic way. Implicit learning is the construction of knowledge in the form of such networks. The strength of association between the network nodes changes in the beginning stages of learning with accumulating exposure, following a power law (automatization). Network parts may attain the status equivalent to ‘symbols’. Explicit learning is the deliberate construction of verbalizable knowledge in the form of symbols (concepts) and rules. The article argues for a nonnativist, emergentist view of first language learning and adopts its own version of what could be called a non-interface position in L2 learning: although explicit knowledge cannot turn into implicit knowledge through practice, it is argued that explicit learning and practice often form efficient ways of mastering an L2 by creating opportunities for implicit learning.

MODELS, ATTENTION, AND AWARENESS IN SLA

Simard and Wong (2001) raise serious concerns about the theoretical and empirical (Leow, 1998b) aspects of Tomlin and Villa's (1994) model, which postulates a fine-grained analysis of attention for SLA and the prediction that awareness at the level of detection is not crucial for further processing of second or foreign language (L2) data. According to Simard and Wong, Tomlin and Villa's frequently cited model has provided the “theoretical motivation for recent studies of input enhancement and especially of textual enhancement in SLA” (p. 104), an impact that needs to be viewed with caution (p. 105). To motivate their critique of Tomlin and Villa's model, the authors repeatedly question the validity of basing their model on “findings from the research contexts of psychology and neuroscience” (p. 105) and, in turn, put forward suggestions for a model of attention that they claim would better reflect the complex nature of SLA as well as suggestions for “new” research orientations relating to attention and awareness in SLA.

Electrophysiological Evidence for Priming in Response to Words and Pseudowords in First and Second Language

The study purpose was to indicate when language-specific processing first occurs and how first and second language priming processes interact. Event-related potentials were recorded from 14 normal native Hebrew speakers, in a variation of lexical decision task, to pairs of stimuli (S1, S2) in Hebrew, English, Hebrew pseudowords, and English pseudowords. Although no behavioral priming was observed, priming by pseudowords in either language affected both N400 and the late positive component of event related potential. N1 and P2 latencies were longer to S2 in semantically related pairs, indicating that language-specific processing may take place as early as auditory cortex. Different processing of first and second language was evident only in response to pseudowords.

Processing inflected morphology in second language word recognition: Russian-speakers and English-speakers read Hebrew

This paper reports on an investigation into the morphosyntactic processing of second language (L2) learners who differ in terms of language learning experience. The chief area of interest was the relationship of L2 learning patterns and experience to the acquisition of automatized processing skills in the morphological domain. English- and Russian-native speakers of Hebrew as L2 were assessed on their sensitivity to complex morphological structures which do not exist in their respective native languages (L1). The Hebrew word formation rule which was the focus of investigation was the affixation of prepositions to nouns, resulting in single words which are also full prepositional phrases. In both English and Russian, prepositions and nouns in prepositional phrases must be autonomous. Participants named high frequency words of one (e.g., /parah/ ‘cow’) and three morphemes (e.g., /bakis/ ‘in the pocket’), which were presented in a control condition and also presented in conditions which either preserved or disrupted the natural morpheme boundaries through the manipulation of font-size. In addition to the experimental measure, participants were also asked to read an expositional passage from a popular Israeli newspaper. Results showed that the Russians, although significantly more accurate than the English speakers at text reading, were significantly less accurate and slower than the English at the naming task, and less impaired by the experimental manipulations. The results are discussed in terms of automaticity, print exposure and age of L2 acquisition.

Visual word recognition in bilinguals: evidence from masked phonological priming.

Bilingual written language representation was investigated with the masked phonological priming paradigm. Pseudohomophonic and control primes of French target words were used to show that Dutch-French bilinguals exhibit the same pattern of phonological and orthographic priming as native French speakers, which suggests that the same processes underlie first-and second-language processing. It was also found that for bilinguals, but not monolinguals, it is possible to prime a target word of the second language with a homophonic stimulus (either word or nonword) of the first language. This interlingual phonological priming effect was of the same size as the intralingual priming effect. Implications for theories of bilingual written language representation and for the interpretation of the masked phonological priming paradigm are discussed.

Syntactic Processing by Skilled Bilinguals

Recent advances in cross‐language psycholinguistics provide reading researchers with both the models and the tools needed to investigate the syntactic processing of second language (L2) readers. In our study, 48 L1 (first language) and 48 highly fluent L2 French readers read sentences containing constructions that do not exist in English, the L1 of the L2 readers: pre‐verbal pronominalization (clitics) and the faire+infinitive causative construction. The L2 readers exhibited the same processing as L1 French readers; however, slower (but equally fluent) L2 readers also employed a compensatory processing for sentences with clitics. These results build on previous findings that faster L2 readers are more efficient in their use of lower‐level information by demonstrating that they are also more efficient at higher‐level syntactic processing. Results are discussed in terms of implications for theories of L2 reading and recent models of cross‐language syntactic processing.

Syntactic Ambiguity Resolution While Reading in Second and Native Languages

Bilinguals' reading strategies were examined in their native and second language via the recording of eye movements. Experiment 1 examined the processing of sentences that con- tained local syntactic ambiguities. Results showed that bilinguals reading in their second language tended to resolve these ambiguities in a different way from native readers. Bilin- guals tended to prefer to attach incoming information to the most recently processed con- stituent. However, this global strategy was inuenced by lexical information provided by the verb. Moreover, the combined analysis of both groups of readers revealed an inuence of verb subcategorization information on syntactic ambiguity resolution. Experiment 2 also examined syntactic ambiguity resolution in the native and second language, for sentences that were ambiguous in only one of the bilinguals' two languages. Results showed that bilinguals hesitated when reading in their second language at points in the sentence where their native language presented conicting lexical information. Following this localized effect of ``transfer'', however, bilinguals performed in a manner similar to native speakers of the language. In combination, these experiments demonstrate that bilinguals perform a complete syntactic parsing of sentences when reading in the second language, and they do so in a manner similar to native speakers. Although lexical information can apparently inuence parsing in the second language, our results do not provide strong evidence that it acts to override syntactic analysis based on structural principles. As most adults who have attempted to master a second language after early childhood would agree, reading in a second language is anything but an automatic process. The dif® culty associated with foreign-language reading is reected in the results of various bilingual studies of sentence processing using a wide variety of measurements, from simple reaction time (Mack, 1986), to on-line assignment of grammatical roles (Kilborn, 1989), to the recording of evoked potentials (Ardal, Donald, Meuter, Muldrew, & Luce, 1990). Unanimously, these studies have shown that not only is second-language process- ing slower than native-language processing, but the pattern of results observed for

An Examination of the Interactive Model of Esl Reading From the Perspective of Approaches To Studying

This study uses techniques derived from the fields of cognitive psychology and student learning to investigate the approaches to studying of a sample of Hong Kong students and to relate these approaches to the interactive model of second-language reading. The English language ability of the subjects, who were studying in a second language, was compared to measures from the Approaches to Studying Inventory (ASI) and data from student interviews. English language ability was found to be correlated with deep and surface approach scores of the ASI, which determine whether a student sets out to find the global meaning of a piece of reading or tries to memorise items. There was evidence of the subjects adopting a narrow focus in their learning approaches, which is interpreted as evidence for over-reliance on bottom-up processing. The results are seen as offering some support to the short-cut hypothesis of second-language processing.

A critical examination of word processing effects in relation to L2 writers

This article offers an assessment of the effects of word processing with reference to writers for whom English is a second language. A review of the findings reported in the published literature on the application of word processing in English first language (L1) and second language (L2) composition leads to an attempt to find explanations for the conflicting results of different studies. Method and context effects are identified which help to account for the differential findings.These effects are attributable to variation across studies in one or more of the following variables: (a) the nature of the students, (b) the abilities and attitudes of the teachers, (c) the setting for computer use, (d) the time span of the implementation, (e) the type and amount of instruction offered in Writing and in word processing, (f) the nature of particular word processing software and hardware, and (g) the measures used for assessing the effects and effectiveness of the implementation. It is concluded that word processing can be of value for nonnative writers if it is employed under certain conditions, and recommendations are offered for research with such populations.

Second Language Listening Comprehension: A Schema‐Theoretic Perspective

process of second language (L2) acquisition. Although current theories of second language acquisition differ in specifics, all take into account the role of comprehension in the processing, storage, and retrieval of linguistic input, and its influence on the development of a learner's second language.1 However, despite this general agreement on the importance of L2 comprehension, little fundamental research has been conducted.

Error Analysis in the Adult EFL Classroom

Burt, Marina K. Error Analysis in the Adult EFL Classroom. Jun 74 22p. MF-$0.75 Uc -$1.50 PLUS POSTAGE *Adult Students; *English (Second Language); *Error Patterns; Grammar; Language Instruction; Linguistics; Second Language Learning; Syntax; Teaching Techniques In recent years, there has been a growing research interest in the analysis of errors adults make while learning a second language. The underlying objective of most of these analyses has been to reveal the systematicity of adult errors in an effort to understand the process of adult second language learning. This paper deals with errors from a different point of view, namely, from the listener or reader's point of view. The question asked is, which types of errors cause the listener or reader to misunderstand the message intended by the EFL learner? Based on the judgments of native English speakers about the comprehensibility of hundreds of sentences containing errors of EFL learners all over the world, linguistic criteria for determining the communicative importance of learners' errors are suggested. Areas of English syntax that cause important communicative errors usually neglected in most EFL training materials are discussed. The paper concludes with the application of this particular error analysis approach to the EFL classroom. (Author) ;1\0ERROR ANALYSIS IN THE ADULT EFL CLASSROOM Marina K. Burt State University of New York at Albany ABSTRACT t: CA. ..it 1 UF Efl.:4*ICN S .SELF %41044, S51,TUTEt: CA. ..it 1 UF Efl.:4*ICN S .SELF %41044, S51,TUTE In recent years, there has been a growing research interest in the analysis of errors adults make while learning a second language. The underlying objective of most of these analyses has been to reveal the systematicity of adult errors in an effort to understand the process of adult second language

Jak badać akwizycję języka obcego w klasie, czyli o zadaniu w perspektywie badań ilościowych i jakościowych

In studies on second language acquisition in formal settings, techniques characteristic of both qualitative and quantitative research paradigms are applied. In the first part of the article, we present general reflection on the methodology of studies on second language acquisition, with a particular emphasis on the role of exploratory research in the analysis of the process of second language teaching/learning in formal settings. In the second part, we present the concept of task, stressing its usefulness as a basic unit of analysis of the corpus of linguistic data obtained in the classroom.