E-waste Processing Research Articles

Human exposure to polychlorinated alkanes (C8-36) in soil and dust from Nigerian e-waste sites: Occurrence, homologue pattern and health risk assessment.

Electronic waste (e-waste) dismantling and dumpsite processes are recognized as significant sources of chlorinated paraffin (CP) exposure. This study aims to investigate the environmental occurrence and distribution of polychlorinated alkanes (PCAs-C8-36), specifically in soil and outdoor dust samples collected from e-waste dumpsites and automobile dismantling and resale sites in Nigeria. The results revealed a widespread occurrence of PCAs across all sampled locations. For the PCAs homologue groups ∑PCAs-C10-13, ∑PCAs-C14-17, and ∑PCAs-C18-20, the median concentrations were 1150 ng/g dry weight (dw), 1180 ng/g dw, and 370 ng/g dw in the dust samples, and 2840 ng/g dw, 1820 ng/g dw, and 830 ng/g dw in the soil samples, respectively. Notably, the homologue distribution patterns of PCAs-C8-36 were similar in both dust and soil samples. However, PCAs-C10-13 was found to be higher in the soil samples, likely due to the wet and/or dry deposition effect of the aerosols, given these chemicals' volatile nature and ease of atmospheric dispersion. Pearson correlation analysis further revealed a co-occurrence of contaminants in the soil samples, supporting the hypothesis that soil acts as a sink for persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Additionally, lower molecular weight polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) showed reduced correlation with the PCAs. Health risk assessments indicated that working on e-waste sites could potentially pose a risk to the workers' health. This study highlights the urgent need for mitigating occupational exposure to PCAs, especially in informal e-waste processing environments where personal protective measures are often lacking.

PBDEs and dechlorane plus contamination in community e-waste recycling: Environmental and health implications in Northeastern Thailand

Electronic waste (e-waste) poses significant environmental and health risks in Thailand due to both domestic production and international imports. A notable portion of this waste is processed in small-scale, community-based workshops, often located in poorer regions, where safety regulations are improperly enforced or entirely ignored. This study focuses on the Kalasin province in Northern Thailand, a region with numerous such workshops, where no comprehensive analysis of exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and dechlorane plus (DP) has been conducted. The study's objective was to quantify these toxic substances in environmental and biological samples to assess its contamination and human health risks. Environmental samples, including soil, dust, sediment, ash, eggs, crabs, snails, fish, and rice, were collected from e-waste processing sites and compared with control areas. Blood samples from e-waste workers and a control group were also analysed. Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry operated in negative ion chemical ionization (GC-NCI-MS) was used to quantify PBDEs and DP isomers. Results showed significantly higher concentrations of these toxic compounds in e-waste sites compared to control areas. E-waste workers also had elevated levels of these substances in their blood, suggesting exposure through contaminated dust and food. These findings underscore the severe environmental contamination and health risks associated with improper e-waste management, highlighting the urgent need for regulatory measures and improved recycling practices to safeguard both environmental and public health.

Low Temperature Pyrolysis and Exfoliation of Waste Printed Circuit Boards: Recovery of High Purity Copper Foils

Although several techniques have been developed to extract copper from waste printed circuit boards (PCBs), there remain several challenges regarding energy consumption, local area contamination and environmental damage. A novel technique has been developed for extracting copper foils from waste PCBs based on low temperature pyrolysis followed by exfoliation to overcome these issues. The standard pretreatment steps of removing electronic components from PCBs and mechanical processing/size-reduction/powdering, etc., were minimized in this study. Several unsorted ‘as received’ PCBs were heat treated in the temperature range 750–850 °C for 5–20 min. in an argon atmosphere. Brittle dark chars and other residues on the heat-treated specimens were scrapped off to separate copper foils and other residuals. Most of the electronic components mounted on PCBs had dropped off during the heat treatment. Good-quality copper foils were recovered in all cases; the purity of copper was in excess of 85 wt.%. Key impurities present were Pb, Sn and Zn with typical concentrations less than 4 wt.%. Key features of the technique include minimizing energy intensive pre-treatment processes and waste handling, low pyrolysis temperatures and short heating times. This energy-efficient approach has the potential to enhance resource recovery while reducing the loss of materials, local area contamination and pollution near e-waste processing facilities.

Useful metals recovery from electronic scraps of headphones – A sustainable approach

The utilization of electronic devices has been consistently increasing each year. In the fiscal year 2020–2021, India handled more than 340,000 tonnes of electronic waste, a significant surge from the 69,414 tonnes recorded in 2017–2018. Over the past four years, there has been a remarkable fourfold increase in the collection and processing of e-waste. This project focuses on e-waste generated from headphones, considering their widespread usage globally. Surprisingly, despite their ubiquity, only 15 % of headphones are recycled, with more than 85 % being discarded as waste. To address this issue, hydrometallurgy treatment is employed to extract valuable metals such as copper and iron. Following this treatment, this research successfully obtained copper carbonate and iron oxide as essential elements. The leached solution undergoes analysis using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). Further characterization through X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) of batteries and magnets aids in identifying the crystalline materials. Additionally, a cost-benefit analysis was carried out, revealing a 57 % and a 39 % profit in copper carbonate and iron oxide extraction respectively and this validates the confirmation of circular economy. Finally, a questionnaire survey was conducted with approximately 192 students, revealing that most headset replacements occur roughly once a year, typically within a budget of around Rs. 500–1000. This strongly indicates a high rate of waste disposal.

E-Waste: Management Techniques for The Environmental Sustainability

The growing generation of E-Waste has forced the various environmental agencies of the world to studies about the serious problematic trends of generation, uses, management and about the discarded part of E-Waste. This problem also grabs attention of many researchers of the world to know about the different aspects of E-Waste generation in such a rapid rate. Some of them discover new ways of handling this electronic waste which contains hazardous and some precious metals in it. This research paper delves into the global challenges posed by electronic waste (e-waste) and explores opportunities for sustainable management. The study underscores the pressing need for responsible recycling strategies, advocating the circular economy model as a viable framework. It provides a detailed examination of India's burgeoning e-waste generation, regulatory measures, and the imperative for effective enforcement. The paper explores mechanical methods for e-waste processing, considering efficiency, economic implications, and the life cycle assessment of e-waste. Practical applications of e-waste in civil engineering, from construction materials to artistic installations, are outlined. Ultimately, the research emphasizes the urgency of collaborative efforts among governments, industries, and individuals to establish robust infrastructure and practices for responsible e-waste management, weighing economic advantages against potential environmental hazards associated with recycling.

Transforming the E-waste Management System

The aim of this research is to inform the transformation of the e-waste management in Dunedin by shifting the focus from recycling to activities higher in the waste hierarchy (for example, redesigning, reducing and refurbishing). Previous research has identified the importance and potential solutions of creating a circular economy for e-waste, but few have addressed the context of Dunedin's social and environmental economy. To gain insight into how Dunedin’s climate influences the e-waste management system, semi-structured interviews were conducted with stakeholders involved in the production, processing and diversion of e-waste.
 The interviews focused on understanding current e-waste management practices, identified barriers and explored opportunities for collaboration with other stakeholders. This research hopes to generate recommendations to improve e-waste management in Dunedin that may be adopted in other areas to support sustainable consumption and production patterns. 
 Supervised by: Craig Cliff, Ray O’Brien
 Scholarship Project Funded by: Dunedin City Council

Toward Sustainable E-Waste Management: Bridging Gaps and Insights from General Santos City, Philippines

Electronic waste (e-waste) management in the Philippines remains underexplored, particularly regarding consumer behaviors, with limited research on the disposal practices of residents in General Santos City. This mixed-method study addresses this gap by exploring the psychosocial factors influencing e-waste management in the city using the Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices (KAP) model across three segments of electronic and electrical equipment (EEE) consumers. Data were collected from 102 participants across five barangays using stratified proportionate sampling via a self-administered survey. Qualitative insights were gathered through an in-depth interview with a key informant from the Solid Waste Management Office. Commercial users show high knowledge (3.68) and positive attitudes (3.81) but lower sustainable disposal practices (3.29). Residential consumers exhibit moderate knowledge (3.36) and attitudes (3.72), with behaviors like hoarding. Educational institutions have the highest knowledge (3.79) and attitudes (3.62) but face adoption challenges. Thus, awareness of environmental and economic impacts alone does not guarantee responsible e-waste disposal. The study emphasizes the need for systemic solutions, such as adopting Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) at the local level by leveraging the Local Government Code of 1991. Local governments can pass ordinances requiring stakeholders to manage end-of-life EEEs, such as establishing e-waste collection points in commercial business districts. Establishments can adopt EPR practices, partnering with educational institutions and NGOs for take-back programs. Integrating urban mining into local EPR frameworks supports a circular economy, reduces reliance on virgin materials, creates jobs, and mitigates environmental impacts. Optimizing municipal solid waste management to include e-waste processing, alongside the "Best-of-2-Worlds" approach, bridges technological gaps. A robust institutional mechanism and strong political commitment are essential to address the underutilization of the city's Material Recovery Facilities. Embracing "think globally, plan regionally, act locally" helps cities develop sustainable, tailored e-waste strategies.

Spatial distribution of potentially toxic elements in e-waste contaminated site at Akwatia-Line, Kumasi, Ghana

E-waste processing sites abound with potentially toxic elements (PTE) that negatively affect the environment and human health. The study determined the presence of selected PTE (Cu, Zn, Pb, Hg, and Al) and their spatial distribution in an e-waste processing site in a developing country setting. pH, moisture, organic matter/carbon, and particle size were determined in 30 soil samples. The spatial position of each sampling point was picked with a GPS device, and the area was mapped in a GIS environment. The concentrations of PTE were determined with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Findings from the study indicate that the soil is polluted with PTE, rich in organic carbon/matter but has low pH. The Geoaccumulation Indices ranged from unpolluted (Al) to strongly/extremely polluted (Cu). Pollution Load Index showed about 77 % of the samples as extremely/heavily polluted, 10 % as heavily polluted, and 13 % as moderately polluted. Contamination Factors of Zn, Pb, and Cu were very high but considerably low for Hg and Al. Regular monitoring and remediation are required for the soil to be restored and put into productive use.

Unexpectedly high levels and health risks of atmospheric polychlorinated biphenyls in modern mechanical dismantling of obsolete electrical equipment: investigations in a large integrated e-waste dismantling industrial estate

Large industrial estates for electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) mechanical dismantling and recycling are gradually replacing outmoded small factories and intensive domestic workshops for e-waste manual and chemical dismantling. However, the air pollution and health risks of persistent organic pollutants during the modern mechanical processing of e-waste, especially obsolete electrical equipment, still remain unclear. Here, unexpectedly high levels (409.3 ng/m3) and health risks of airborne polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were found during the mechanical processing of obsolete electric equipment or parts in a large integrated dismantling industrial estate, which is comparable to or a dozen times higher than those reported during chemical processing. In contrast, the levels (936.0 pg/m3) and health risks of particulate polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were all lower than those of previous studies. PCB emissions (44.9–3300.5 ng/m3) varied significantly across six mechanical dismantling places specifically treating waste motors, electrical appliances, hardware, transformers, and metals, respectively. The high PCB content and mass processing number of obsolete electrical equipment probably result in the highest PCB emissions from the mechanical dismantling of obsolete motors, followed by waste electrical appliances and metals. The PCB non-cancer and cancer risks associated with inhalation and dermal exposure in different mechanical dismantling places were all above the given potential risk limits. In particular, the health risks of dismantling obsolete motor exceeded the definite risk levels. Little difference in PCB emissions and health risks between working and non-working time suggested the importance of PCB volatilization from most e-waste. Such high PCB emissions and health risks of PCBs undoubtedly posed a severe threat to frontline workers, but fortunately, they decreased significantly with the increasing distance from the industrial estate. We highlight that PCB emissions and associated health risks from obsolete electrical equipment with high PCB content during mechanical dismantling activities should be of great concern.

Techno-economic analysis of an integrated bio- and hydrometallurgical process for base and precious metal recovery from waste printed circuit boards

Electronic waste (e-waste) is one of the fastest-growing waste streams and is often referred to as an urban mine due to its high base and precious metal content. Printed circuit boards (PCBs) have been the focus of numerous studies investigating bio- and hydrometallurgical pathways to extract and recover metals of value. This study evaluated the economic feasibility of an integrated bio- and hydrometallurgical process for extracting and recovering base and precious metals from PCBs. The process consisted of collecting and processing PCBs, extracting and recovering base metals using biogenic sulfuric acid and ferric iron, and extracting and recovering precious metals using hydrometallurgical pathways. A preliminary techno-economic analysis (TEA) was conducted to examine the potential costs of a plant that can process 1,000 tons per year of PCBs in Australia. The key factors that influence the economic feasibility were identified, and the effects of various factors, such as process efficiencies and market conditions, on the plant's profitability were evaluated. This assessment provided insight into the economic aspects of the process and assisted in identifying critical research pathways. Based on this analysis, the proposed process is profitable under optimised conditions and can address many challenges associated with e-waste processing in Australia.

Electronic waste (E-waste) generation and management scenario of India, and ARIMA forecasting of E-waste processing capacity of Maharashtra state till 2030

This article addresses a critical environmental issue largely attributed to Gen-Z, namely Electronic waste (E-waste). The modern human lifestyle has significantly impacted waste management, with new technological advancements posing both environmental challenges and economic opportunities. E-waste, generated due to the disposal or end-of-life of electronic products, is now one of the fastest-growing domestic waste streams. Proper E-waste management and monitoring are essential for achieving maximum resource utilization and reducing the adverse impacts of E-waste, in line with the Sustainable Development Goals. India has laws and legislation in place to ensure the safe handling, management, and treatment of E-waste, with the pollution control board serving as the monitoring and tracking authority. This study focuses on the state of Maharashtra, investigating past and future trends using Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models, commonly used in time series analysis and forecasting. The study predicts that the average E-waste processing capacity (recycling/dismantling) from 2023–2030 will be 163563.15 MT (metric tons), with forecasted values increasing steadily over the years, reaching 248 recyclers by the year 2030. By analysing rate of change in E-waste processing capacity from 2023–2030, there will be chances of 6.86 % annually. This is also highlighting the scope of entrepreneurship in E-waste recycling industries by detecting average expansion of recyclers by 7.23 % per year. The study emphasizes the significant role of policy and decision-making in managing this rapidly growing waste stream from an environmental management and circular economic perspective.

Analysis and Pollution Assessment of Brominated Flame Retardants (PBDEs, DBDPE, and BTPBE) in Settled Dust from E-waste and Vehicle Processing Areas in Northern Vietnam

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), and 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE) are typical brominated flame retardants (BFRs), which were widely added to polymeric and textile materials to meet fire safety requirements. PBDEs (including commercial penta-, octa-, and deca-BDE mixtures) have been classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention, while DBDPE and BTBPE are considered as PBDE replacements. In the present study, concentrations of PBDEs (major congeners of technical PBDE mixtures such as BDE-28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, 197, 207, and 209), DBDPE, and BTBPE were simultaneously analyzed in settled dust samples collected from e-waste and end-of-life vehicle (ELV) processing areas in northern Vietnam. The dust samples were extracted by using an ultrasonic processor subsequently by acetone and acetone/hexane (1:1) mixture for 10 min each time. The dust extract was treated with concentrated sulfuric acid and activated silica gel to remove interferences. BFRs were analyzed by using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) equipped with a DB-5ht column. The mass spectrometer was operated at electron capture negative ionization (ECNI) and selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. Concentrations of total PBDEs, DBDPE, and BTBPE ranged from 77 to 240,000 (median 6000), from <20 to 240,000 (median 5500), and from <10 to 9200 (median 160) ng/g, respectively. Concentrations of BFRs in the e-waste dust were significantly higher than those measured in the ELV dust, suggesting e-waste processing activities as potential sources of BFRs in dust. Among BFRs analyzed, BDE-209 and DBDPE were the most predominant compounds, implying intensive application of deca-BDE mixtures and alternative formulations.

E-waste in Vietnam: a narrative review of environmental contaminants and potential health risks.

Informal electronic waste (e-waste) dismantling activities contribute to releasing hazardous compounds in the environment and potential exposure to humans and their health. These hazardous compounds include persistent organic pollutants (POPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals. This review searched papers addressing hazardous compounds emitted from e-waste recycling activities and their health effects in Vietnam. Based on the keywords searched in three electronic databases (PubMed, Psych Info, and Google scholar), we found 21 relevant studies in Vietnam. The review identifies extensive e-waste dismantling activities in Vietnam in the northern region. To measure the environmental exposure to hazardous compounds, samples such as e-waste recycling workshop dust, soil, air, and sediments were assessed, while human exposure levels were measured using participants' hair, serum, or breast milk samples. Studies that compared levels of exposure in e-waste recycling sites and reference sites indicated higher levels of PBDEs, PCBs, and heavy metals were observed in both environmental and human samples from participants in e-waste recycling sites. Among environmental samples, hazardous chemicals were the most detected in dust from e-waste recycling sites. Considering both environmental and human samples, the highest exposure difference observed with PBDE ranged from 2-48-fold higher in e-waste processing sites than in the reference sites. PCBs showed nearly 3-fold higher levels in e-waste processing sites than in reference sites. In the e-waste processing sites, age-specific higher PCB levels were observed in older recycler's serum samples. Among the heavy metals, Pb was highly detected in drinking water, indoor soil and human blood samples. While high detection of Ni in cooked rice, Mn in soil and diet, Zn in dust and As in urine were apparent. Exposure assessment from human biomonitoring showed participants, including children and mothers from the e-waste processing areas, had higher carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks than the reference sites. This review paper highlights the importance of further comprehensive studies on risk assessments of environmentally hazardous substances and their association with health outcomes at e-waste processing sites.

How does formal and informal industry contribute to lead exposure? A narrative review from Vietnam, Uruguay, and Malaysia.

Lead industries are one of the major sources of environmental pollution and can affect human through different activities, including industrial processes, metal plating, mining, battery recycling, etc. Although different studies have documented the various sources of lead exposure, studies highlighting different types of industries as sources of environmental contamination are limited. Therefore, this narrative review aims to focus mainly on lead industries as significant sources of environmental and human contamination. Based on the keywords searched in bibliographic databases we found 44 relevant articles that provided information on lead present in soil, water, and blood or all components among participants living near high-risk areas. We presented three case scenarios to highlight howlead industries have affected the health of citizens in Vietnam, Uruguay, and Malaysia. Factories conducting mining, e-waste processing, used lead-acid battery recycling, electronic repair, and toxic waste sites were the primary industries for lead exposure. Our study has shown lead exposure due to industrial activities in Vietnam, Uruguay, Malaysia and calls for attention to the gaps in strategic andepidemiologic efforts to understand sources of environmental exposure to lead fully. Developing strategies and guidelines to regulate industrial activities, finding alternatives to reduce lead toxicity and exposure, and empowering the public through various community awareness programs can play a crucial role in controlling exposure tolead.

Smellscaping Guiyu

Once the largest e-waste recycling and processing town in the world, Guiyu, China, was characterized by a pungent, penetrating smell of burning chemicals and plastics, commonly referred to as Guiyu Wei by both locals and officials. Shrouded in the environmental terror of unidentified toxins and chemicals, breathing had become a precarious bodily (re)action that constantly put people’s lives at risk. Taking Guiyu as its center case, this essay documents two “smell walks” in Guiyu conducted by the local community and me, respectively. It presents a prolonged material afterlife of data that is intimately intertwined with the life and livelihood of the local workforce and community and tracks the production of desensitized subjects. How do we represent a particular kind of smell or a specific form of olfactory experience? How can we communicate this message with a larger public that has little knowledge of what life is like within a chemically polluted environment? This project seeks to think about these questions in artistic terms, conceiving research-creation as an integral methodology. Through the Guiyu-inspired art series, “Synesthesia (unfinished),” I explore various possibilities of olfactory representation and the emergent relationships among smell, the environment, and our sensorium. As the centerpiece of this project, I envision “Smellscaping Guiyu” as an immersive installation that takes visitors beyond their intimate sensory knowledge and immerses them in the unfamiliar olfactory milieu fabricated by chemicals and elements from Guiyu, one of the “shadow places” at the corner of the world.

Physicochemical Properties and Health Risks of Informal E-Waste Processing at Alaba International Market in Lagos, Nigeria

Physicochemical Properties and Health Risks of Informal E-Waste Processing at Alaba International Market in Lagos, Nigeria

Environmental impact of e-waste management in Indian microscale informal sectors.

Inappropriate e-waste processing in the informal sector is a serious issue in developing countries. Field investigations in microscale informal recycling sites have been performed to study the impact of hazardous metal(loid)s (released from e-waste dismantling) on the environment (water and soil). Eight hazardous metal(loid)s (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, As, Hg, Ni, and Cr) were primarily found in the monitored water and soil samples (Sangrampur, West Bengal) because of widespread informal e-waste handling and primitive processing. Elevated concentrations of Cd, Pb, As, Cu, and Cr were observed in pond water samples (0.04, 1.62, 0.03, 1.40, 1.74mg/L respectively). These ponds, which are regularly used for e-waste handling/dismantling, are usually flooded during the monsoon season mixing with further larger water resources - posing a serious threat to public health. Enriched levels of Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn were detected in collected soil samples, both top surface soil (Pb up to 2042.27 ± 206.80, Cd up to 25.90 ± 9.53, Cu up to 6967.30 ± 711.70, and Zn up to 657.10 ± 67.05mg/Kg) and deeper subsurface soil (Pb, 419.70 ± 44.70; Cd, 18.34 ± 3.81; Cu, 3928.60 ± 356.40; and Zn, 134.40 ± 33.40mg/Kg), compared to the levels of As, Hg, Ni, and Cr. Seasonal variation of soil metal(loid) content indicated that higher levels of most of the metal(loids) were detected in the pre-monsoon (Nov-May) season, possibly due to the monsoonal dilution effect, except for Pb and Cd. The results highlighted that the composition and the handling of e-waste were important factors affecting the metal(loid) concentrations. E-waste policy and legislation have great influence on the handling and disposal procedures. An improved e-waste management practice has been proposed to encourage eco-friendly and safe e-waste disposal. It is recommended that regulatory agencies and manufacturers should create a road map to convince the informal sector to develop a systematic approach towards a more standardized formal e-waste management practices at the microscale field level.

Evaluation of Heavy Metals Uptake by the Plants and Contamination of Ground Water in the Vicinity of E-Waste Processing Sites in Lagos, Nigeria

Metal uptake by plants and the contamination of ground water samples collected from the vicinity of sites of uncontrolled open-burning, dismantling/disposal, stockpiling and dismantling/stockpiling of e-waste, were investigated, seasonally over a period of two years. Samples of two common plants (including Lepistemon owariense, Alchornea cordifolia ) were collected along with the root soil, as well as water samples, from the sites and analysed by standard procedures entailing acid digestion of the samples followed by determination of the metals- Zn, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Ni with atomic absorption spectrometer. The results showed that the mean metal contents (mg/kg) in the plants, 9.00- 35.2 Cu; 0.83-175 Pb for dry season and 10.1-101 Cu; 17.6- 300 Pb for wet season, were generally above the WHO limits. The uptake of metals from the soil by plants, expressed in terms of the transfer factor differed from one plant to the other and among plant parts, with Alchornea cordifolia, showing greater mean uptake of Zn, Pb and Cu than Lepistemon owariense from the Ojota site in the dry season. Metal concentrations in the water samples were generally within the WHO limits. Residents should be dissuaded from using these plants for medicinal and/or domestic purposes, because of concerns for human health.

A review on management practices, environmental impacts, and human exposure risks related to electrical and electronic waste in Vietnam: findings from case studies in informal e-waste recycling areas.

Electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) has become a global concern, especially in developing countries. In this review, we conducted a literature survey of e-waste management practices, processing activities, and adverse effects in Vietnam, an emerging country in Southeast Asia, by gathering data from peer-reviewed articles published between 2009 and 2021. This is the first review paper to comprehensively discuss management and research aspects regarding e-waste in an Asian developing country. Due to the lack of an effective management and recycling system, a certain portion of Vietnamese e-waste has been processed by informal sectors without appropriate recycling and pollution control technology, resulting in localized contamination and human exposure to toxic chemicals. Primitive processing activities, such as manual dismantling, open burning, and plastic recycling, have been identified as important contributors to the environmental emission and human exposure to toxic elements (notably As, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn) and organic pollutants like flame retardants, PAHs, PCBs, and dioxin-related compounds. Informal e-waste processing from these small-scale workshops can release pollutants at similar levels compared to large-scale facilities in developed countries. This fact suggests an urgent need to develop management best practices for e-waste in Vietnam as well as other emerging and developing countries, in order to increase recycling efficiency and minimize their adverse impacts on environmental and human health.

Health Problems and Healthcare-Seeking Practices of Workers Processing E-Waste in the Unorganized Sector in the Slums of a South Indian City: An Exploratory Study.

The precarious nature of the work in the unorganized e-waste processing sector poses a threat to workers' health by making them vulnerable to occupational injuries as well as other work-related diseases in addition to job insecurity and related issues. To systematically explore and quantify employment and working conditions along with the occupational health problems and healthcare-seeking practices of workers processing e-waste in the slums of a south Indian city. Cross-sectional study conducted in the slums of a south Indian city. We used a structured interview schedule among 248 randomly selected workers. Descriptive statistics were utilized to summarize the results. 95% CI was calculated for select proportions. Chi-square tests were used to determine statistical significance. We found a predominance of self-employment; unclear employment relationship; no paid holidays; long working hours; unequal wages; absence of work-related social security; absent workers' organization; rented units; minimal/no use of safety equipment, no concept of good ergonomic practices. The commonest occupational health concerns were injuries (17% & 41% respectively) and musculoskeletal problems (43.5%). Private/charitable clinics were the commonest source of seeking healthcare which contributed to 'irrational' practices in the form of repeated TT injections. Findings suggest that the precarious work in the unorganized e-waste processing sector could not only give rise to health problems but also make workers undermine the severity of their health problems. The non-responsiveness of the local public healthcare system compels them to rely on private and charitable clinics and pay for services that are otherwise freely available in UPHCs.