E-waste Processing Research Articles

The use of synthetic agonists of quorum sensing N- acyl homoserine lactone pathway improves the bioleaching ability in Acidithiobacillus and Pseudomonas bacteria.

Metal solubilization from discarded electrical material and electronic devices (e-waste) using the bioleaching capabilities of bacterial cells is highly effective. However, gaps in understanding about the microbiological processes involved in the bioleaching reaction leads to less efficient metal solubilization in large-scale e-waste processing. In this study, bacterial species belonging to the genera Acidithiobacillus and Pseudomonas were used to leach copper and gold from discarded printed circuit boards (PCB). Through modulation of the cell-to-cell communication system in these bacteria, phenotypic traits directly involved in the bioleaching reaction were regulated in order to improve the metal solubilization. Addition of the long chain synthetic autoinducer molecule N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) of the quorum sensing pathway to the bioleaching reaction resulted in a significant enhancement of metal extraction from PCB. Factors such as: cell attachment to PCB, biofilm formation and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) production were regulated by the quorum sensing system and could be directly related to the improvement of metal bioleaching. Bioleaching reactions using bacterial quorum sensing modulation could represent a valuable tool in overcoming limitations at the industrial level imposed by microbiological traits that lead to inefficient metal bioleaching from e-waste.

Characterization of industrially pre-treated waste printed circuit boards for the potential recovery of rare earth elements

Rare earth elements (REE) are classified as critical raw materials and the environmental impact of mining them is of growing concern. The recovery of REE from electronic waste (e-waste) could offer a more sustainable practice. Waste printed circuit boards (WPCBs) are an important resource in the e-waste stream due to their content of valuable materials. However, data regarding the concentration and distribution of REE in WPCBs is very limited. The aims of this research were: (a) to analyse the chemical composition of comminuted WPCBs prior to processing (industrially pre-treated) with emphasis on REE, and (b) to determine the distribution of REE and other metals in different size fractions of the pre-treated WPCBs. The samples were supplied by commercial e-waste recycling companies, which makes them representative of the e-waste processing industry in the UK. Correlation between elemental concentrations and particle size was analysed using Spearman’s rank correlation. Most REE concentrations were inversely correlated to the particle size. Concentrations of Y, La and Gd were found up to a thousand times higher in the smaller particle size compared with coarser particles. However, most of base metals including Cu, Sn, Pb and Zn did not show this trend. The present study highlights the occurrence of REE in comminuted WPCBs, and fine fractions as potential sources of these critical elements, currently not recovered during recycling process. A cost-effective sieving step is proposed to enrich the REE content for further recovery, prevent the possible loss of REE and maximize the total material recovered from WPCBs. • REE concentrations are inversely correlated to the particle size in comminuted WPCBs. • Concentrations of REE are up to a thousand times higher in finest fractions (<0.25 mm). • Fine fractions can contain over 60% of the total mass of some REE. • Simple and cost-effective sieving step can enhance yield of REE for recovery purposes. • Comminuted WPCBs are an untapped resource for REE recycling.

Co-metabolism of 4-bromophenol by Pseudomonas sp. EN-4 and toxicity evaluation of biotransformed samples

Bromophenols, the building blocks of polybrominated flame retardants (PBFRs) constitute an important class of pollutants as they had been reported from different types of ecosystems across the earth. The improper disposal of PBFRs containing electronic waste (e-waste) and wastes from industrial units is of concern due to their recalcitrant nature and acute toxicity. In the current study Pseudomonas sp. EN-4 was able to metabolise 4-bromophenol (4-BP), a model representative of bromophenols in presence of phenol as a co-substrate. The isolate withstand the extreme pH (5.0–10.0) and salinity conditions (0.5–2% w/v) and maintain its degradation potential in presence of different metal ions prevalent at contaminated sites. The HPLC and MS analysis of biotransformed samples revealed the formation of catechol, which might get channelized to the central metabolic pathway by catechol 1,2-dioxygenase mediated ortho-cleavage of the aromatic ring. Further, > 70 % transformation of 2-bromophenol (20 mg/L), 2,4,6-tribromophenol (20 mg/L) and 3,3’,5,5′-tetrabromobisphenol A (10 mg/L) indicates the metabolic versatility of strain EN-4. A significantly lower toxic potential of biologically treated samples on Vigna radiata and Channa punctatus validated the utility and efficacy of EN-4 cells. These findings lay the foundation for future studies in developing a site specific treatment system for bioremediation of waste generated by e-waste processing and other similar units.

Atmospheric occurrences of nitrated and hydroxylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from typical e-waste dismantling sites

Primitive electronic waste (e-waste) dismantling activities have been shown to be an important emissions source for a variety of toxic organic compounds, including carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Previous studies have found that some nitrated PAHs (NPAHs) are more toxic than their parent PAHs, however, little attention has been paid to the formation of PAH derivatives during e-waste processing and there is a lack of comprehensive data from field observations. In this study, the spatial distribution, temporal trends and atmospheric fate of NPAHs and hydroxylated PAHs (OH-PAHs) were investigated at typical e-waste dismantling sites, with monitoring data collected over three consecutive years. Compared to background levels, higher levels of NPAHs and OH-PAHs were found in air samples from an e-waste dismantling industrial park, with their seasonal and annual changes shown to be affected by e-waste dismantling activities. Atmospheric PM2.5 particles were found to have high relative abundances of NPAHs (76.9%–95.1%) and OH-PAHs (73.3%–91.6%), with particle-bound concentrations ranging from 20.1 to 88.8 and 37.1 to 107 pg m−3, respectively. The most abundant NPAH isomers were found to be 9-Nitroanthracene and 2-Nitrofluoranthene, while OH-PAH isomers containing 2–4 rings were predominant. Source identification was performed based on the specific diagnostic ratios of NPAH isomers, confirming that NPAH and OH-PAH emissions have multiple sources, including emissions related to the e-waste dismantling process, atmospheric photochemical reactions and traffic emissions. Further research on the fate of such derivatives and their potential use as markers for source identification, is urgently required.

From campaign-style governance to multiple environmentalities: urban political ecologies of e-waste regulation in Guiyu, China

ABSTRACT Recent urban political ecology (UPE) literature on urban environmentality, drawing on Foucauldian power analytics, sheds important light on how powers in non-coercive, non-sovereign, and diffused forms emerge and produce docile environmental subjects. Meanwhile, much literature on urban environmental politics in the Global South works with an environmental governance approach, focusing on the role of sovereign power in governing urban socio-ecological changes. This paper collapses the distinction between sovereign and non-sovereign forms of governance by engaging with the multiple environmentalities thesis. This theoretical perspective is illustrated through a case study of a highly polluted global e-waste processing hub, namely Guiyu Town, Guangdong Province, China. In all, this study not only highlights the relevance of the multiple environmentalities paradigm to UPE but also paves a way towards developing situated theories and empirics amidst environmental politics in the urban South.

Governing the network: Trust in E-waste informality in India

The informal sector occupies a significant position and proportion of modern-day configuration of global e-waste recycling networks. The internal governance in the work and life of informal waste actors is crucial to sustain the spatial coordination of used goods trade. Using the global production network (GPN) framework, this paper investigates the value of trust and social networks in organising the predominantly informal e-waste processing activities in India. Based on an extensive primary research conducted between 2011 and 2013 in Delhi and a subsequent revisit to the field in 2018 and 2021, it provides a much-needed analysis of the robust informal linkages in the political economy of e-waste in the country. The GPN literature has not sufficiently explored the significance and interplay of trust in informal governance relationships in waste management. Drawing from the rich scholarship on trust and social network to analyse the empirical evidence, this research argues that inter-personal ties, shared norms and clustering practices nurture trust that is fundamental for constructing and regulating informal business endeavours. It contributes to the GPN understanding of vertical and horizontal network governance by demonstrating how the cohesive power of trust vitalises the recycling landscape and consolidates the position of informality therein despite recurring legislative endeavours to stifle informal operations.

Catalysing electrowinning of copper from E-waste: A critical review

Smart technologies and digitalisation have increased the consumption of scarce metals that threaten the sustainability of intricated industries. Additionally, the growing streams of waste electrical and electronic equipment (e-waste) are significant hazards to public health and the environment. Thus, there is an escalating need to recover metals from e-waste for sustainable management of metal resources. Hydrometallurgical processing of e-waste, involving copper (Cu) leaching and its subsequent recovery from pregnant leach solution (PLS) via electrowinning, has emerged as an efficient strategy to close the recycling loop. Electrowinning from PLS demonstrated higher Cu recovery efficiency and operational feasibility with a lower reagent use and lesser waste generation. Nevertheless, multiple issues challenged its practical implementation, including selective recovery of Cu from PLS containing mixed metals and high energy consumption. This review (1) identifies the factors affecting Cu electrowinning from PLS; (2) evaluates the composition of lixiviants influencing Cu electrowinning; (3) appraises various catalysts developed for enhancing Cu electrodeposition; and (4) reviews coupled systems that minimised process energy consumption. From the literature review, electrocatalysts are prospective candidates for improving Cu electrowinning as they reduced the cathodic reduction overpotentials, enhanced surface reaction kinetics and increased current efficiency. Other catalysts, including bioelectrocatalysts and photoelectrocatalysts, are applicable for dilute electrolytes with further investigations required to validate their feasibility. The coupled systems, including slurry electrolysis, bioelectrochemical systems and coupled redox fuel cells, minimise process energy requirements by systematically coupling the cathodic reduction reaction with suitable anodic oxidation reactions having thermodynamically low overpotentials. Among these systems, slurry electrolysis utilising a single-step processing of e-waste is feasible for commericalisation though operational challenges must be addressed to improve its sustainability. The other systems require further studies to improve their scalability. It provides an important direction for energy-efficient Cu electrowinning from PLS, ultimately promoting a circular economy for the scarce metal resources.

The interphase distribution of light REE Ce(III) and La(III) in system based on PEG-1500 – NaNO3 – H2O with the quaternary ammonium base addition

The problem of e-waste processing and recovery of valuable metals from such waste for the second use is attracting more and more scientists’ attention. Liquid extraction as one of hydrometallurgy steps is a traditional method for the metal recovery. However, application of solvent extraction is not meet the green chemistry principles due to organic solvents. Aqueous two-phase systems based on water-soluble polymers are promising alternative for hazardous organic solvents. In this work the dependencies of Ce(III) and La(III) distribution coefficients from process time and the initial quaternary ammonium base concentration have been achieved. Also, based on the Ce(III) and La(III) extraction isotherms it has been shown that the metals initial concentrations are highly affects the distribution coefficients of studied metals. The possibility of aqueous two-phase system application as a solvent for quaternary ammonium salt for light REE (Ce(III) and La(III)) extraction from water solution has been shown.

HBM4EU Occupational Biomonitoring Study on e-Waste-Study Protocol.

Workers involved in the processing of electronic waste (e-waste) are potentially exposed to toxic chemicals. If exposure occurs, this may result in uptake and potential adverse health effects. Thus, exposure surveillance is an important requirement for health risk management and prevention of occupational disease. Human biomonitoring by measurement of specific biomarkers in body fluids is considered as an effective method of exposure surveillance. The aim of this study is to investigate the internal exposure of workers processing e-waste using a human biomonitoring approach, which will stimulate improved work practices and contribute to raising awareness of potential hazards. This exploratory study in occupational exposures in e-waste processing is part of the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU). Here we present a study protocol using a cross sectional survey design to study worker’s exposures and compare these to the exposure of subjects preferably employed in the same company but with no known exposure to industrial recycling of e-waste. The present study protocol will be applied in six to eight European countries to ensure standardised data collection. The target population size is 300 exposed and 150 controls. Biomarkers of exposure for the following chemicals will be used: chromium, cadmium and lead in blood and urine; brominated flame retardants and polychlorobiphenyls in blood; mercury, organophosphate flame retardants and phthalates in urine, and chromium, cadmium, lead and mercury in hair. In addition, the following effect biomarkers will be studied: micronuclei, epigenetic, oxidative stress, inflammatory markers and telomere length in blood and metabolomics in urine. Occupational hygiene sampling methods (airborne and settled dust, silicon wristbands and handwipes) and contextual information will be collected to facilitate the interpretation of the biomarker results and discuss exposure mitigating interventions to further reduce exposures if needed. This study protocol can be adapted to future European-wide occupational studies.

E-waste Mitigation Strategies Method Selection Using WSM

Developing countries like India and China are struggling with a double-digit e-waste problem due to huge domestic production and illegal imports from developed countries. Low labour availability and backward ecological strategies of these countries are the main reasons for cross-border transport of e-waste. Regarding However, safe e-waste management and processing, Attractive practices used to extract precious metals Environmental pollution and human with health threats related World's Strongest Man in 2022 You'll have to wait to see it on TV. This CBS and CBS Sports later in the summer Broadcast available on network, details to come will be announced in weeks. Winchester Short Magnum, or WSM, is an American manufacturer of Winchester rifles and one of America's oldest firearms manufacturers. Repeat Rim refers to a family of bottlenecked centerfield short magnum cartridges developed by Repeating Arms in the early 2000s. WSM was first signed introduced WSM. The call letters "WSM" reflected the motto of national life: "We Protect the Millions." E-waste recyclers open burning and Processes like acid-leaching are using Creating awareness by and with the principles in force Infrastructure of recycling units by improving this situation can be improved. Collected in India Most of the e-waste through informal administration managed Department

Global destruction networks and hybrid e-waste economies: Practices and embeddedness in Guiyu, China

Recent geographical scholarship on the illicit e-waste geographies and e-waste processing hubs in the Global South has shed light on the global mobilities, production/destruction networks, and political economy/ecology of e-waste. However, their views about the reactivation of value in waste and the dialectics between waste and value rest predominantly on networks of material linkages shaped by broader political-economic structures at macro scales, but are relatively reticent about how mobilities and networks are coordinated by specific places, and how economic practices conducted by a broad diversity of local actors, often informal, constitute economic relations, transactions and dependencies, mediated by place-sticky social and cultural fabrics and vernacular institutions. Based on a study of Guiyu town in Guangdong Province, China, an (in)famous hub of global e-waste recycling, this study unpacks its cluster evolution through a perspective that works with the concept of embeddedness but by way of an emphasis on practice. By tracing a multiplicity of territorial, sociocultural, and political dynamics that articulate between the local and the global, this study enriches existing scholarships on e-waste geographies, global production/destruction networks, and the economic geographies of the illicit.

Pengolahan limbah elektronik (E-Waste) mix resin sebagai embrio usaha berbasis seni estetika

This Community Service is a Student Creativity Program carried out by the partners of the Karang Taruna Group, Batulappa Village, Patimpeng District, Bone Regency. This activity aims to solve problems regarding E-Waste that occur due to continuous accumulation. E-Waste buildup usually occurs due to minor damage or has entered the end of use. E-Waste is one of the wastes made from hazardous materials, so it includes hazardous and toxic materials (B3) whose concentration will affect health and pollute the environment if it accumulates. E-Waste Processing, a very crucial impact is that generally the owner of the electronic service only burns the generated electronic waste. However, this can pollute the air and environmental ecosystems, so other efforts are needed in overcoming and reducing electronic waste for education to the Karang Taruna Group in Batulappa Village. E-Waste mix resin can be used as a means to channel the creativity of the Karang Taruan Group in Batulappa Village as a partner by processing the components that exist in E-Waste. The work produced can be commercialized with a high selling value to help improve the partner's economy as a provision for future skills for entrepreneurship.

Evaluation of heavy metal exposure pathways on children from an informal e-waste processing village in Viet Nam

Attempts were made to assess the contributions of different pathways of heavy metal exposure to the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks based on the field samplings and questionnaire surveys of children residing in an informal e-waste processing village and a reference village in Viet Nam. The results showed that the ingestion of cooked rice contributed the most (69.20 − 99.60%), followed by the ingestion of soil (0.32 − 29.53%), to the environmental health risks of exposure to a mixture of Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, and As in children from the two villages. Ingestion of drinking water and dermal contact of soil, however, contributed negligibly. It was found that the non-carcinogenic risk of each heavy metal from four pathways was less than 1, with Ni (0.48), As (0.44), Cd (0.23), Cr (0.19), and Pb (0.14), meaning these heavy metals are unlikely to cause an adverse non-carcinogenic risk to a child. It was also found that the carcinogenic risks for each heavy metal, except that for dermal contact of soil to children were higher than the benchmark value of 10−6 set by USEPA, indicating the likelihood of carcinogenic risks to children, especially to those aged 8 − 10 years. Children whose parents were engaging in e-waste processing activities and those who lived in a distance less than 10 m from an e-waste processing site sustained greater carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks.

High-Temperature Fluidized Bed Processing of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) as a Way to Recover Raw Materials

This paper explores the effectiveness of metal recovery and values of gaseous emissions during thermal e-waste processing followed by magnetic separation. The thermal process of conversion of this kind of waste is difficult due to the uncertainty of the operation when compared to the processing of homogeneous materials. This is due to their complex and heterogeneous structure. The adoption of the fluidized bed reactor makes the process feasible, stabilizing it significantly and limiting emissions of harmful gases. Mobile cellphones were used as the raw input material of 450 g total mass. During the thermal transformation, the exhaust gases such as: CO, CO2, NOx, SO2, HCI, HBr, HCN, NH3, phenol, hydrocarbons, HF and COCI2 were analysed. The thermal treatment resulted in 333.6 g of solids in the fluidized bed. They were fragmented into grains smaller than 1 mm and 0.5 mm. The process of magnetic enrichment was used next on grains greater than 1 mm and smaller than 0.5 mm. The process was carried out using a neodymium magnet for particles &gt;1 mm and a plate electromagnetic separator (powered by a three-phase current) together with a 1-disc tape-type separator, which was used for particles &lt;1 mm. Such an approach resulted in the recovery of 81.9% of cobalt, 96.6% of iron and 99.2% of neodymium. The most efficient method of magnetic enriching (MS) proved to be the use of the electromagnetic plate separator.

Influence of Electrolyte Impurities from E-Waste Electrorefining on Copper Extraction Recovery

In order to reflect possible issues in future sole e-waste processing, an electrolyte of complex chemical composition reflecting system of sole e-waste processing was obtained by following a specially designed pyro-electrometallurgical method. The obtained non-standard electrolyte was further used for the purpose of comprehensive metal interference evaluation on the copper solvent extraction (SX) process. Optimization of the process included a variation of several process parameters, allowing determination of the effect of the most abundant and potentially the most influential impurities (Ni, Sn, Fe, and Zn) and 14 other trace elements. Moreover, comparing three commercial extractants of different active chelating groups, it was determined that branched aldoxime reagent is favorable for Cu extraction from the chemically complex system, as can be expected in future e-waste recycling. The results of this study showed that, under optimal conditions of 20 vol.% extractant concentration, feed pH 1.5, O/A ratio 3, and 10-min phase contact time, 88.1% of one stage Cu extraction was achieved. Co-extraction of the Fe, Zn, Ni, and Sn was under 8%, while Pb and trace elements were negligible. Optimal conditions (H2SO4 180 g/L, O/A = 2, and contact time 5 min) enabled 95.3% Cu stripping and under 6% of the most influential impurities. In addition, an impurity monitoring and distribution methodology enabled a better understanding and design of the process for the more efficient valorization of metals from e-waste.

Presence of elements associated with e-waste in teenagers living in Alcalá de Henares (Spain)

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Electronic and technological waste (e-waste) is growing fast in parallel with economic and technological development. Inappropriate disposal or processing of e-waste can have severe implications for the environment, with unknown harmful effects in humans. As a result, a human monitoring programme was performed to determine the exposure to elements commonly found in technology, specifically silver (Ag), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi) and neodymium (Nd), in Alcalá de Henares (Community of Madrid, Spain). METHODS: Scalp hair was collected from 96 adolescents (13-16 years-old; 28 boys and 68 girls) living in Alcalá, who were recruited following strict selection criteria to minimise the effect of confounding factors. Elements were analysed by ICP-MS in processed samples following appropriate methodologies. Data was processed using statistical methods applied to censored data available in the ‘NADA’ statistical package. RESULTS:The concentrations in scalp hair were as follows [data is presented as median and interquartile range (IQR) in µg/g]: Ag 0.065 (0.030, 0.222), Sb 0.009 (0.006, 0.015) and Bi 0.002 (0.001, 0.005). As Nd was detected only in 3.1% of the monitored samples, only the 97.5th percentile is provided for this element (0.013 µg/g). Only the levels of Ag showed sex dependency (p0.001), being higher in female participants (median values; 0.103 vs. 0.036), which is in agreement with the literature. The presence of these elements were lower relative to those reported in scalp hair from young adults from the Community of Madrid and also Italy, which indicate that Alcalá’s adolescents would have not been generally exposed to e-waste. Our results also might indicate minimal exposure to Nd, as the range found (0.015-0.030 µg/g) was much lower than that reported in exposed Chinese adolescents aged 11-15 (0.09-5.27 µg/g). CONCLUSIONS:Adolescents living in Alcalá de Henares should be regarded as a neglected risk group for e-waste exposure. KEYWORDS: E-waste, human hair, monitoring, Spanish teenagers, exposure.

Studies on the Content of Selected Technology Critical Elements (Germanium, Tellurium and Thallium) in Electronic Waste

The article draws attention to the problem of the presence of metals: germanium (Ge), tellurium (Te), thallium (Tl), and others (Cd, Ba, Co, Mn, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sr, and Zn) in selected waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). As a result of the growing demand for new technologies, the global consumption of TECs has also been increasing. Thus, the amount of metals in circulation, of which the impacts on the environment have not yet been fully understood, is constantly increasing. Due to the low content of these metals in WEEE, they are usually ignored during e-waste analyses. The main aim of this study was to determine the distribution of Ge, Te, and Tl (and other elements) in ground sieve fractions (1.0, 0.5, 0.2, and 0.1 mm) of selected electronic components (solar lamps, solar cell, LED TV screens, LCD screens, photoresistors, photodiodes, phototransistors) and to determine the possible tendency of the concentrations of these metals in fractions. This problem is particularly important because WEEE recycling processes (crushing, grinding, and even collection and transport operations) can lead to dispersion and migration of TCE pollutants into the environment. The quantitative composition of e-waste was identified and confirmed by ICP-MS, ICP-OES and SEM-EDS, and XRD analyses. It was found that Ge, Te, and Tl are concentrated in the finest fractions of ground e-waste, together with Cd and Cr, which may favor the migration of these pollutants in the form of dust during storage and processing of e-waste.

Evaluating and managing interactive barriers for sustainable e-waste management in China

E-waste, also known as waste electrical and electronic equipment, has become one of the fastest growing waste streams worldwide. As the world’s largest e-waste processing country, China’s e-waste management practice is facing multiple barriers to meet the requirement of sustainability from the economic, environmental and social perspectives. With an empirical study on the e-waste management practice of a major province in Western China, this paper develops an integrated planning approach for evaluating and managing the barriers which have mutual influence on their impact on the e-waste management practice. In consideration of interactive relationships of the barriers, a barrier assessment process is developed to assess the direct and indirect impacts of the barriers on the sustainable e-waste management practice in terms of economic, environmental and social sustainability criteria. A strategic planning process is proposed to categorise the barriers into four planning zones based on their overall impact and mitigation level. This paper contributes to e-waste management research by providing a structured approach for managing interactive barriers to achieve sustainable e-waste management. The proposed approach represents a methodological contribution to multicriteria evaluation research involving sustainability criteria and interactive alternatives.

Critical analysis of metallic and non-metallic fractions in the flotation of waste printed circuit boards

The processing of e-waste is gaining importance worldwide as it contains a large number of valuable metals. In the present investigation, an attempt has been made to analyze the influence of surfactants on the flotation of printed circuit boards. Flotation kinetic studies have been carried out by varying different surfactant combinations such as C0F0 (without surfactants), C0F1 (only frother), C1F0 (only collector), and C1F1 (collector and frother). A first-order kinetic model has been proposed to explain the recovery of metallic and non-metallic particles. The hydrophobic plastic particles could be recovered to the froth products without surfactants. The addition of collector and frother imparts movement of few metallic particles to the froth products causing a decrease in the recovery of metals to the non-froth products (Cu recovery decreased from 92% to 72% and Sn recovery decreased from 90.1% to 65%). However, the frother is essential to impart stability to the froth and facilitate transportation of particles to the froth products. Frother alone can satisfactorily separate metallic and non-metallic particles.

Electronic Waste, an Environmental Problem Exported to Developing Countries: The GOOD, the BAD and the UGLY

Electronic waste (e-waste) is a rapidly developing environmental problem particularly for the most developed countries. There are technological solutions for processing it, but these are costly, and the cheaper option for most developed countries has been to export most of the waste to less developed countries. There are various laws and policies for regulating the processing of e-waste at different governance scales such as the international Basel Convention, the regional Bamoko Convention, and various national laws. However, many of the regulations are not fully implemented and there is substantial financial pressure to maintain the jobs created for processing e-waste. Mexico, Brazil, Ghana Nigeria, India, and China have been selected for a more detailed study of the transboundary movements of e-waste. This includes a systematic review of existing literature, the application of the Driver, Pressure, State, Impact, Response (DPSIR) framework for analysing complex problems associated with social ecological systems, and the application of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for evaluating the environmental impact of electronic devices from their manufacture through to their final disposal. Japan, Italy, Switzerland, and Norway have been selected for the LCA to show how e-waste is diverted to developing countries, as there is not sufficient data available for the assessment from the selected developing countries. GOOD, BAD and UGLY outcomes have been identified from this study: the GOOD is the creation of jobs and the use of e-waste as a source of raw materials; the BAD is the exacerbation of the already poor environmental conditions in developing countries; the UGLY is the negative impact on the health of workers processing e-waste due to a wide range of toxic components in this waste. There are a number of management options that are available to reduce the impact of the BAD and the UGLY, such as adopting the concept of a circular economy, urban mining, reducing loopholes and improving existing policies and regulations, as well as reducing the disparity in income between the top and bottom of the management hierarchy for e-waste disposal. The overarching message is a request for developed countries to help developing countries in the fight against e-waste, rather than exporting their environmental problems to these poorer regions.