Process Of Empathy Research Articles

Affective Diffusion Between Migrants and Inhabitants. Art Based on Migrant Movement

Abstract The main objective of this essay is to consider Polish perception of the 21st-century European movement of migration and analyse the literary and artistic representations of this experience through the examples of Jarosław Mikołajewski’s A Great Surge, Krzysztof Wodiczko’s Guests, Anna Konik’s In the Same City, Under the Same Sky and Margot Sputo’s Who Where?. I relate these works to the latest international art, including projects by Ai Weiwei, E. B. Itso, Giacomo Sferlazzo, and look for common denominators. I claim that the common feature of many artistic projects is the creation of a substitute for contact between the viewer and refugees, appealing to other senses than sight, especially to the sense of touch. These works do not attempt to represent the experience of migrants as individuals, but point to the experience of migration in its elemental aspect-matter and physical contact, exposure to destruction, dependence, intimacy, confrontation with others. What’s more, art based on migrant movement-referring to the imagined experience of direct contact with migrants or their belongings-bypasses the process of identification and empathy. Instead, it relies on affective transmission. I propose a category of affective diffusion as a process that can occur not only between sentient individuals but also as a result of the material aspect of art and the contact with the viewer. The inspiration to create the concept of affective diffusion is the relationship between migrants and inhabitants described by Jarosław Mikołajewski in his essay Wielki Przypływ [A Great Surge] which shows aspects of migration through Lampedusa Island. Many inhabitants who are asked about migrants show intensive emotions like anger, fear and xenophobia. But the testimonies of people who see the living and the dead day after day suggest that these emotions get weaker under the influence of physical contact. It seems that the moment of two bodies getting in touch undermines the frozen system of ideas and emotions, stimulates feelings, opens up a new, ambiguous potential for understanding. This is because expressive emotions lose their importance with the activation of affective transmission. This physical contact gives rise to changes in the economy of feeling, thinking and judging.

Distrust and Empathy: Explaining the Lack of Support for Capital Punishment Among Minorities

Public opinion polls show that the majority of people in the United States support capital punishment but that is because the majority of White Americans support it. Research on the opinions of non-Whites consistently finds less support. We examine racial and ethnic differences among people who actually had to decide whether to impose the death penalty, former capital jurors, and hypothesize that lower support among non-Whites can be explained by the fact that non-Whites are more likely to distrust the criminal justice system and more likely to show empathy for the defendant in a capital case, net of defendant and victim race. Using data from the Capital Jury Project, we find support for this hypothesis in a mediating relationship between race and sentencing vote. Black and Hispanic jurors are more likely to report distrust of the capital process and higher levels of empathy for the defendant, both of which lower the probability of a death vote during the sentencing phase of the trial. We discuss the implications for research, trial strategy, and the future of capital punishment in light of these findings.

The Influence of Medical Professional Knowledge on Empathy for Pain: Evidence From fNIRS.

Empathy is a mental ability that allows one person to understand the mental and emotional state of another and determines how to effectively respond to that person. When a person receives cues that another person is in pain, neural pain circuits within the brain are activated. Studies have shown that compared with non-medical staff, medical practitioners present lower empathy for pain in medical scenarios, but the mechanism of this phenomenon remains in dispute. This work investigates whether the neural correlates of empathic processes of pain are altered by professional medical knowledge. The participants were 16 medical students who were enrolled at a Chinese medical college and 16 non-medical students who were enrolled at a normal university. Participants were scanned by functional near-infrared spectroscopy while watching pictures of medical scenarios that were either painful or neutral situations. Subjects were asked to evaluate the pain intensity supposedly felt by the model in the stimulus displays, and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index-C (IRI-C) questionnaire was used to measure the empathic ability of participants. The results showed that there is no significant difference between medical professional and non-medical professional subjects in IRI-C questionnaire scores. The subjects of medical professions rated the pain degree of medical pictures significantly lower than those of non-medical professions. The activation areas in non-medical subjects were mainly located in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, frontal polar regions, posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus, supramarginal gyrus, supplementary somatosensory cortex and angular gyrus, whereas there was a wide range of activation in the prefrontal lobe region in addition to the somatosensory cortex in medical professionals. These results indicate that the process of pain empathy in medical settings is influenced by medical professional knowledge.

EEG Hyperconnectivity Study on Saxophone Quartet Playing in Ensemble.

A professional quartet of saxophonists playing in ensemble provides a perfect scenario to study the eventual occurrence of synchronous oscillatory brain activity across subjects. Here, we applied hyperscanning methodologies for simultaneously recordings of electroencephalographic (EEG) signals from four professional saxophonists while they observ an audiovideo recording of their own previous musical performance. An ad-hoc musical composition was written for the study. At debriefing, the subjects were asked to answer two questionnaires to assess their empathy trait and the musical leadership. In order to estimate the hyperconnectivity of each musician we proposed a measure which combines phase synchronization index of brain oscillations and graph theory framework. The inter-connectivity level of each musician was statistically compared. Statistical results revealed a significant lower hyperconnectivity in the left Brodmann area 44 for the Soprano with respect to the other three members. Recent theories attributed this brain region (Broca's area) to music generation, empathy processes and communication. We hypothesize a relationship between brain-to-brain connectivity level and the musical role within the quartet.

Empathy for Non-Kin, the Faraway, the Unfamiliar, and the Abstract––An Interdisciplinary Study on Mencian Moral Cultivation and a Response to Prinz

This article challenges the pessimistic view that empathy and other fellow feelings are biased and erratic motivation for morality. By discussing Mencius’ account on how to develop empathy from its biased and erratic beginnings, I argue that empathy can be extended to less common objects, such as non-kin, the faraway, the unfamiliar, and the abstract. The extension facilitated by empathy in turn enhances one’s moral cognition toward the sufferings of less common objects; the extension also helps to include less common objects into one’s circle of care. I respond to critics of empathy such as Prinz by highlighting the dynamic cultivational process of empathy that they overlook, and further point out that empathy can be cultivated so as to provide a remedy for the biases that no emotion is immune to. This article contributes to the ongoing discussion on moral cultivation in the Chinese philosophy community and the dispute over empathy’s role in morality in contemporary ethics.

The Product of Film Industry - a Cultural Good in Commodity Form

In consideration are the essence characteristics of a theatrical feature as a product of film industry. The focus of attention is a contradiction between the psychic-cultural use value of film-industry products and the commodity form of their production and consumption. As the object of spectatorship needs, the product of film industry distinguishes itself in the capacity of a story narrated in the language of cinema, interestingly to the targeted movie-goer. Spectatorship needs are emotional, intellectual and other psychic impetuses of the individual, requiring satisfaction through ones immersion in the image world of cinema. A difference is drawn between the spectators needs toward cinema and those of society as a whole. The film production aimed at a profitable satisfaction of individual needs is incapable of explicating and meeting certain societal needs. Psychological mechanisms of immersing spectators in a film world are the processes of empathy and identification, regression and projection, imparting cinema with some sort of magic. The modern film industry has grown on the soil of commodity film production to which some essential demerits are endemic. Picture of the world created by it is a function of the films commodity form, thus rendering the picture mongrel in many respects. The magnitude of the box office, functioning as a code for establishing and maintaining interaction between the societys cultural highs and lows, entails certain dysfunctional consequences. In the modern conditions of globalization the national commodity-film production is forced to adapt to the demands of Americanized mass audience. With the irreversibility of an objective law, there crops up a certain loss of the national productions own face. In this regard, consideration is given to the issues of authentically expressing and reproducing the nations identity by the means of cinema.

Synchronization, Attention and Transformation: Multidimensional Exploration of the Aesthetic Experience of Contemporary Dance Spectators.

The co-presence of bodies in intersubjective situations can give rise to processes of kinesthetic empathy and physiological synchronization, especially in the context of dance: the body and attention of the spectators are oriented towards the dancers. In this study, we investigate the processes of “body-mind” resonance between a choreography and its spectators, and more specifically the lasting impact of this resonance post-performance. We then explore the relation between the observed effects and subjective measures of attention. The study focuses on the work of the French choreographer Myriam Gourfink, who develops a unique movement, based on the slower breathing of dancers: the breathing generates an extremely slow movement without rhythmic ruptures. Phenomenological studies of her work report changes in temporal perception and changes in bodily attentional states. We made use of two cognitive tasks in order to quantify this change in temporal perception: Spontaneous Motor Tempo (SMT) and Apparent Motion effect (AM) before and after a 40-min live performance. Subjective reports were collected at the end of the performance. Physiological data were recorded before and after the performance. We performed a control experiment with a choreography of a distinctly different quality of movement. Post-Gourfink performance, we observed a significant deceleration of SMT and a decrease in its variability, while AM was reported with longer temporal intervals. Neither of these effects was observed in the control condition. Furthermore, an increase in perception of AM was correlated with a slower breathing rate after the performance. Correlations with subjective reports suggest a link between changes in cognitive and physiological dynamics and the degree of absorption of the spectators in the performance. In addition, these changes were related to specific reported attentional dispositions that we interpret as a form of attentional resonance. The ensemble of the results suggests an expansion of the “specious present” that is related to the slowing of physiological rhythms, and an attentional resonance between spectators and the choreography. The intricate relation we observed between inter-personal resonance and temporal cognition, foregrounds the notion of shared present as a neurophenomenological construct.

Empathy and humanitarianism predict preferential moral responsiveness to in-groups and out-groups

ABSTRACTThe current research tests whether empathy—sharing others’ emotions—and humanitarianism—recognizing the moral worth of all people—each predict moral responsiveness toward others but in ways that favor in-groups and out-groups, respectively. In Studies 1 and 2, empathy and humanitarianism differentially predicted preferential moral concern for in-groups and out-groups. In Study 3, humanitarianism predicted lower in-group-targeted prosociality and greater out-group prosociality. In Study 4, empathy and humanitarianism predicted perceived moral obligation to in-groups and out-groups respectively. In Study 5, out-group obligation mediated between humanitarianism and allocations to out-group charities, and in-group obligation mediated between empathy and one of two in-group charities. In sum, empathy and humanitarianism are associated with preferential morality via group-based obligation, suggesting that morality could be extended by altering empathy, humanitarianism, or group processes.

Observing Environmental Destruction Stimulates Neural Activation in Networks Associated with Empathic Responses

The negative impacts of environmental disruption disproportionately affect marginalized and underprivileged communities; thus, the degree to which society is complicit in allowing unchecked environmental destruction to occur has important social justice applications. Although decades of research have sought to understand factors which determine acceptance of environmental destruction, most of this research has been based on self-report surveys. In the present work, we used neuroimaging techniques to examine the neural correlates of environmental concern. To do this, we compared responses to observing suffering dogs with responses to observing suffering ecosystems. Our results extend previous findings which had shown largely overlapping neural response patterns to observing animal and human suffering. Critically, we found activation in regions previously identified as active in empathy processes in response to viewing harm to ecosystems (i.e., without any animals present in the images). We also found relative differences in response patterns between the two types of stimuli: witnessing harm to environments (vs. dog suffering) led to reduced activation in some regions, but similar activation in others. We discuss these findings in terms of their potential implications for behavioral interventions and possibilities for continued neuroimaging research examining neural responses to environmental ecosystems and other nonhuman entities.

Edith Stein\u2019s phenomenology of sensual and emotional empathy

This paper presents and explicates the theory of empathy found in Edith Stein’s early philosophy, notably in the book On the Problem of Empathy, published in 1917, but also by proceeding from complementary thoughts on bodily intentionality and intersubjectivity found in Philosophy of Psychology and the Humanities published in 1922. In these works Stein puts forward an innovative and detailed theory of empathy, which is developed in the framework of a philosophical anthropology involving questions of psychophysical causality, social ontology and moral philosophy. Empathy, according to Stein, is a feeling-based experience of another person’s feeling that develops throughout three successive steps on two interrelated levels. The key to understanding the empathy process á la Stein is to explicate how the steps of empathy are attuned in nature, since the affective qualities provide the energy and logic by way of which the empathy process is not only inaugurated but also proceeds through the three steps and carries meaning on two different levels corresponding to two different types of empathy: sensual and emotional empathy. Stein’s theory has great potential for better understanding and moving beyond some major disagreements found in the contemporary empathy debate regarding, for instance, the relation between perception and simulation, the distinction between what is called low-level and high-level empathy, and the issue of how and in what sense it may be possible to share feelings in the empathy process.

Impaired Empathy Processing in Individuals with Internet Addiction Disorder: An Event-Related Potential Study.

Internet addiction disorder (IAD) is associated with deficits in social communication and avoidance of social contact. It has been hypothesized that people with IAD may have an impaired capacity for empathy. The purpose of the current study was to examine the processing of empathy for others’ pain in IADs. Event-related potentials produced in response to pictures showing others in painful and non-painful situations were recorded in 16 IAD subjects and 16 healthy controls (HCs). The N1, P2, N2, P3, and late positive potential components were compared between the two groups. Robust picture × group interactions were observed for N2 and P3. The painful pictures elicited larger N2 and P3 amplitudes than the non-painful pictures did only in the HC group but not in the IAD group. The results of this study suggest that both of the early automatic and of the later cognitive processes of pain empathy may be impaired in IADs. This study provides psychophysical evidence of empathy deficits in association with IAD. Further studies combining multidimensional measurements of empathy are needed to confirm these findings.

Qualitative research on the empathy experience of the nurses with the cancer patients in the Department of Oncology

Objective The feelings of the nurses in the Department of Oncology when they offered empathy nursing were investigated, which was the reference for improving the empathy service ability of the nurses with the cancer patients, improving the effect of nursing and developing management strategies. Methods Nineteen nurses who had worked continuously in the Department of Oncology in a class Ⅲ grade A hospital in Wuhan for more than 3 years were included from August to October of 2016 with the method of purposive sampling. The process of the nurses' empathy with the patients and their feelings were the interview contents. The data were analyzed, concluded using Colaizzi content analysis method and then the themes were extracted. Results Five themes were extracted. They were being required which meant professional identity; being trusted which meant personal value; insufficient empathy ability which meant help pity; excessive empathy which meant negative feelings of life; big pressure which meant empathy fatigue. Conclusions The empathy nursing ability of the nurses in the Department of Oncology and the empathy effect should be paid more attention to and corresponding support and trainings should be arranged, in order to make the nurses take effective empathy and intervention in the cancer patients proactively and satisfy the inner demand of the patients indeed. Key words: Nurses; Department of Oncology; Patients; Empathy; Qualitative research

IMPLEMENTASI KEBIJAKAN PENCEGAHAN dAN PENANGGULANGAN HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY/AQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME (HIV/AIdS) dI KOTA SURAKARTA

Abstract<br />This Articel to analyze the implementation of policy on the prevention and combat of Human Immunodefisiency Virus and Aquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) in Surakarta City. This type of research in writing this is a non-doctrinal/empirical, with basing on the concept of the law of the 5th. The form used is the research diagnostic analysis. The data type of the data source, and the primair include primary and secondary legal materials. Data analysis using qualitative analysis. Based on the results of research and discussion with respect to issues that are examined, it can be summed up as follows : (1) Factors that become the cause of inadequate response to the HIV and AIDS amongst others caused the problem of HIV and AIDS has not been considered a priority issue by the health sector as well as the development of related sectors; (2) the political support that has not been adequately against the program; (3) yet uncoordinated Commission Response AIDS (KPA) and the SKPD of Surakarta City either the direction of development, planning and implementation of policies and programs regarding the Decree despite various efforts for tackling even the financing has been issued; and (4) the still inadequate dissemination of information and access to health services and the availability of VCT services, ARV existence for sufferers and those at high risk with HIV/AIDS. The steps that must be performed in order to cope with HIV/AIDS in Surakarta, among others : (1) Aspects of the substance of the law with further strengthen runway operations mainly technical instructions and guidelines that govern the start of planning, implementation, evaluation, monitoring, sanctions; (2) Aspects of structure/function and by improving the institutional tasks of KPA either in quality, as well as institutional manegement KPA. (3) Aspects of culture either by increasing the involvement of the population of Key Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) care about HIV/AIDS and high risk groups in planning the program and run the program as well as an evaluation of the program as a Field Officer (FO), Counselor, Case Manager. The establishment of culture/culture done by influencing the attitudes and behavior of continuously/routine so that you can understand, addressing the process of countermeasure and empathy, so as to minimize the discrimination against People Living with HIV/AIDS (ODHA). <br />Keywords: Implementation – Policy – HIV/AIDS – Surakarta

The Empathic Process and Misconceptions that Lead to Burnout in Healthcare Professionals.

Empathy has been identified as a relevant variable in order to predict burnout in healthcare professionals. In addition, assertiveness and self-esteem have been considered relevant variables to develop empathic capacity. In the other hand, misconceptions surrounding empathy constitute a risk factor for burnout. Two adult samples (N = 252 and N = 275) were used to explore and confirm the underlying structure of two questionnaires. The Exercise of Process of Empathy (EPE) scale (18 items) confirmatory factor analysis including 5 dimensions (cognitive and emotional comprehension, attention, clarity and assertiveness), showed reasonable goodness- of-fit indices χ2(130) = 269.63, p < .001; RMSEA = .069 90% CI [0.058 - 0.079]; CFI = .965; TLI = .959. Alpha coefficient resulted .848. Common Misconceptions (EH) of empathy scale (16 items) confirmatory factor analysis, including 3 dimensions (feeling, confluence and character misconceptions) also obtained reasonable goodness-of-fit indices χ 2 (101) = 250.59, p < .001; RMSEA = .075 90% CI [0.063 - 0.087]; CFI = .952; TLI = .943. Alpha coefficient for Character resulted .727 (5 items), for Confluence .764 (5 items) and for Feeling .822 (6 items). The SEM model's R 2 resulted .303, being EH (misconceptions) a risk factor (b* = .171), EPE (empathy process) a protection factor (b* = -.183). The model partially explains how misconceptions empathy process and self-esteem (b* = -.334) relate to burnout syndrome in healthcare professionals; what is more, it heralds a potential means to prevent it.

Relation of emotion regulation and empathy skills with maternal emotion regulation and attachment in children diagnosed with ADHD

Objective: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common childhood neurodevelopmental disorder. Difficulties in the areas of emotion regulation and empathy were found in prior studies. Mother-child attachment is important in the development of emotion regulation and empathy. We aimed to examine the relation emotional regulation and empathy skills in children with ADHD and emotion regulation and attachment properties in their mothers and to compare with healthy controls. Methods: The study group consisted of 61 children (8-12 years old) diagnosed with ADHD. The control group (87 children) comprised patients of other clinics at hospital and was matched for gender and age to the ADHD patients. The Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Aged Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL) was used to diagnose ADHD and allowed comorbidities. We evaluated disorder severity at the time of assessment using the DuPaul Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder Rating Scale. All patients were treatment-naive. Emotional Regulation Checklist (ERC) and KA-SI empathy scale were used to examine children emotional regulation and empathy. Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) was used to indicate maternal emotional dysregulation status and Experiences in Close Relationship Scale-II was used to evaluate attachment properties in mothers. Results: Children with ADHD had statistical significant lower scores in the areas of affective empathy, cognitive empathy, total empathy score and emotion regulation and cases had statistical significant higher scores in emotion lability. Mothers of children with ADHD had higher scores in anxious and avoidant attachment styles and all subscales of DERS. The correlation between, ADHD symptoms, KA-SI Empathy, ERC, Attachment Scale, and DERS was evaluated by Pearson’s correlation analysis. Negative correlation was found between both attention deficit and hyperactivity scores of Du Paul scale and affective, cognitive empathy scores of KA-SI Emphatic Tendency Scale and emotion regulation scores of ERC; a positive correlation was determined between attention deficit and hyperactivity scores of Du Paul scale, mothers’ anxious and avoidant attachment and DERS total scores, and emotional lability scores of ERC. Discussion: Mother-child attachment and maternal emotion regulation skills have important roles in the emotion regulation and empathy skills of children. Better understanding of neuropsychologic development process of attachment, empathy and emotion regulation skills and their relations with each other may contribute to the treatment of children with ADHD.

Analyzing and Predicting Empathy in Neurotypical and Nonneurotypical Users with an Affective Avatar

In recent times, diagnosing and treating different health issues have improved greatly with the help of technology, with an example being cognitive health issues. Despite this, there is still a difference between how the technology is working towards it and the actual potential that can be achieved. In this paper, we propose a mobile application with an affective avatar, encompassed in the area of serious games, which will obtain information related to the interactions performed by the users. There are a total of 50 users, of neurotypical and nonneurotypical backgrounds, with the latter being people with Down syndrome and intellectual disability. Based on collected data from the different users interacting with the avatar in a mobile device, we analyzed the results to obtain a ground truth about prototypic empathic interactions and feed those interactions to a learning algorithm to support the diagnosis process and therapy treatment of empathy and socialization issues.

The process of empathy: insights from John Berger's A Fortunate Man.

A Fortunate Man: The Story of a Country Doctor , by John Berger and illustrated by Jean Mohr’s photographs, was published almost 50 years ago but has recently been reissued.1,2 Berger describes the work of Dr John Sassall, a rural GP in the Forest of Dean. Studying the book provides insights into the process of empathy. There is agreement that we need more of it in medical care, although conflicting evidence suggests that medical students experience a decline in their empathy levels during training.3–6 A Fortunate Man also warns of the dangers of going beyond empathy and becoming overwhelmed by the patients’ suffering.2 An interpretivist approach has been used to explore the text of Berger’s book through a phenomenological lens.7 This involves a double hermeneutic: the reader is interpreting Berger’s interpretation of Sassall’s views and experience of a 6-week period of his practice. Berger acknowledges the subjectivity of his observations and yet from a phenomenological perspective his insights resonate with the problems facing GPs today. The aim of this analysis is to identify themes relating to the process of empathy in the book and stimulate debate about empathic relationships in general practice today. Empathy is a complex, multifaceted construct that has been defined in many different ways.8 For some doctors empathy has been defined in narrow cognitive terms leading to a form of ‘detached concern’.4 This study adopts a broader approach highlighting empathy’s cognitive, affective, behavioural, and moral aspects.9,10 Berger is struck by Sassall’s connection with patients, seeing empathy as a relational process rather than a personal attribute. Sassall begins by spending time with the patient, appreciating the importance of the first contact and learning about the person before considering their illness:2 ‘“The door opens,” he …

Gender differences in the relationships of temperament and behavioral problems in Russian adolescents

Problems related to aggression in young people are traditionally subsumed under the header of conduct problems, which include conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. Such problems in children and adolescents are an important societal and mental health problem. In this paper we present an evolutionarily informed developmental psychopathology view of conduct problems inspired by the NIMH Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative. We assume that while there are many pathways to conduct problems, chronic or temporary impairments in the domain of social cognition or mentalizing are a common denominator. Specifically, we conceptualize conduct problems as reflecting temporary or chronic difficulties with mentalizing, that is, the capacity to understand the self and others in terms of intentional mental states, leading to a failure to inhibit interpersonal violence through a process of perspective-taking and empathy. These difficulties, in turn, stem from impairments in making use of a normally evolutionarily protected social learning system that functions to facilitate intergenerational knowledge transmission and protect social collaborative processes from impulsive and aggressive action. Temperamental, biological, and social risk factors in different combinations may all contribute to this outcome. This adaptation then interacts with impairments in other domains of functioning, such as in negative and positive valence systems and cognitive systems. This view highlights the importance of a complex interplay among biological, psychological, and environmental factors in understanding the origins of conduct problems. We outline the implications of these views for future research and intervention.

The Social Causes and Political Consequences of Group Empathy

Recent scholarship has discovered significant racial/ethnic group variation in response to political threats such as immigration and terrorism. Surprisingly, minority groups often simultaneously perceive themselves to be at greater risk from such threats and yet still prefer more open immigration policies and civil liberties protections. We suggest a group‐level empathy process may explain this puzzle: Due to their higher levels of empathy for other disadvantaged groups, many minority group members support protections for others even when their own interests are threatened. Little is known, however, about the unique properties of group empathy or its role in policy opinion formation. In this study, we examine the reliability and validity of our new measure of group empathy, the Group Empathy Index (GEI), demonstrating that it is distinct from other social and political predispositions such as ethnocentrism, social dominance orientation, authoritarianism, ideology, and partisanship. We then propose a theory about the development of group empathy in reaction to life experiences based on one's race/ethnicity, gender, age, and education. Finally, we examine the power of group empathy to predict policy attitudes and political behavior.

Affective Events and the Development of Leader-Member Exchange

We propose that consideration of affective events theory can enrich our understanding of leader-member exchange (LMX) development. Drawing from previous research, we argue that high-quality LMX relationships progress through three stages: role taking, role making, and role routinization. Affective events theory indicates that emotions are relevant at each of these three stages, although their influence is manifested in different ways and at different levels of analysis. During the initial role-taking stage, leaders’ affective expressions serve as affective events influencing member emotions through the processes of emotional contagion and affective empathy, which determine the progress of further relationship development. Next, during the role-making stage, leaders and members are both sources of affective events, and they may gradually become affectively entrained such that their affective states tend to fluctuate in a common rhythm. This pattern of dyadic-level affect helps to build high-quality LMX rel...