Problems In Middle Childhood Research Articles

Frightening maternal behavior over the first 2 years of life: effects on children’s behavior problems in middle childhood

ABSTRACT Frightening maternal behavior is linked to infant disorganization, which predicts child behavioral problems. We examined continuity in frightening maternal behavior across the first 2 years by developing a new measure of anomalous/frightening (AN/FR) behavior that incorporates changes in parent–child interactions as children acquire symbolic representation. Maternal AN/FR behavior in toddlerhood also was examined in relation to later internalizing and externalizing symptoms. First-time mothers (N = 125) completed the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) prenatally, and mother–child dyads were observed interacting at 8 months, in Strange Situations at 12–15 months, and playing at 24 months. Teachers rated children’s behavior problems at 7 years. Mothers classified as Unresolved on the AAI displayed more Frightening (FR) behavior at 8 months. Mothers’ FR behavior predicted both attachment disorganization at 12–15 months and maternal AN/FR behavior at 24 months, which then predicted children’s internalizing symptoms at age 7. Infant disorganization was indirectly related to internalizing symptoms, mediated by maternal AN/FR behavior.

Prenatal Cannabis and Tobacco Co-Exposure and Its Association with Behavioural Outcomes in Middle Childhood: Co-exposition prénatale au cannabis et au tabac et son association avec les résultats comportementaux au cours de l'enfance intermédiaire.

Cannabis legalization has triggered an increase in prenatal cannabis use. Given that tobacco is commonly co-used with cannabis, determining outcomes associated with prenatal cannabis and tobacco co-exposure is crucial. While literature exists regarding the individual effects of prenatal cannabis and tobacco exposure on childhood behaviour, there is a gap regarding their combined use, which may have interactive effects. Therefore, we investigated whether prenatal cannabis and tobacco co-exposure was associated with greater externalizing and internalizing problems in middle childhood compared to prenatal exposure to either substance alone or no exposure. Baseline data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (collected in children ages 9-11) were used to explore differences in externalizing and internalizing scores derived from the Childhood Behavior Checklist across four groups: children with prenatal cannabis and tobacco co-exposure (CT, n = 290), children with prenatal cannabis-only exposure (CAN, n = 225), children with prenatal tobacco-only exposure (TOB, n = 966), and unexposed children (CTL, n = 8,311). We also examined if the daily quantity of tobacco exposure modulated the effect of cannabis exposure on outcomes. Adjusting for covariates, a 2 × 2 ANCOVA revealed significant main effects for prenatal cannabis (p = 0.03) and tobacco exposure (p < 0.001), and a significant interaction effect on externalizing scores (p = 0.032); no significant main effects or interactions were found for internalizing scores. However, interactions between daily quantity of cannabis and tobacco exposure significantly predicted both externalizing and internalizing scores (p < 0.01). These findings indicate that co-exposure is associated with greater externalizing problems than exposure to either substance alone, which did not differ from each other. Further, greater tobacco exposure may amplify the negative effect of cannabis exposure on both externalizing and internalizing behaviours in children. These findings underscore the need for interventions that target cannabis and tobacco co-use in pregnant women to circumvent their adverse impact on middle childhood behaviour.

A Systematic Literature Review of Strategies Implemented in Extended Education Settings to Address Children's Mental Health and Wellbeing.

Mental health and wellbeing problems in middle childhood are increasing worldwide which needs more support than just clinical services. Early intervention has been explored in other settings, but not in extended education care settings such as outside school hours care (OSHC). A systematic literature review was undertaken to determine what interventions have been tested in extended education settings to address or promote emotional, behavioural, or social wellbeing in children, and to assess how effective they have been. A PRISMA guided search found seven peer reviewed articles from an initial pool of 458. Data from the articles were extracted and the mixed method appraisal tool (MMAT) was applied to assess methodological quality of the studies design, data collection, and analyses. The final selections were methodologically heterogeneous with an average MMAT quality rating of 71%. All but one of the interventions were delivered to children in small group settings and were a mix of activities. Studies that trained educators to deliver the interventions were limited and no data were collected for them. The two interventions that trained educators to deliver content to children were seen as promising. This review showed an overall paucity of research examining interventions delivered in extended education settings to improve children's wellbeing. Given variations in extended education services and the absence of formal qualifications required for educators, further research is needed to understand what interventions may be effective and what role educators could play in such interventions or in supporting children's wellbeing in extended education.This review protocol was prospectively registered with PROSPERO . Registration ID: CRD42023485541 on 03/12/2023.

Single mothers' perceptions of neighborhood social cohesion, parenting stress, adverse childhood experiences in early childhood and Black children's behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence.

This study examined the roles of neighborhood social cohesion, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), and parenting stress in early childhood on child behavioral outcomes in middle childhood and adolescence among socioeconomically disadvantaged Black families. To test a model linking perceptions of neighborhood social cohesion, single mothers' parenting stress, ACEs, and behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence. We used four waves of longitudinal data from a subsample of 800 unmarried Black mothers and their children (at child birth and ages 3, 5, 9, and 15) from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a nationally representative data set. Structural equation modeling with latent variables was used to measure direct and indirect effects. Mothers' perceptions of neighborhood social cohesion were significantly and negatively associated parenting stress (β = -0.34, p < 0.05); parenting stress was significantly and positively related to adverse childhood experiences (β = 0.40, p < 0.05) and behavior problems (β = 0.32, p < 0.05); Adverse childhood experiences were significantly and positively related to behavior problems (β = 0.26, p < 0.05); and behavior problems were indirectly influenced by neighborhood social cohesion through adverse childhood experiences (β = -0.14, p < 0.05) and parenting stress (β = 0.10, p < 0.05). Neighborhood factors may play a significant role in parenting stress, adverse childhood experiences in early childhood, and children's behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence among some single mothers and children in economically and socially disadvantaged Black families. Interventions that enhance neighborhood social cohesion and foster supportive interactions among community members and organizations are recommended.

Facial emotion recognition and social-emotional problems in middle childhood: Assessment of directional effects

Research has consistently shown that difficulties in facial emotion recognition (FER) are associated with peer problems and internalizing symptoms during middle childhood. However, no longitudinal research has investigated the direction of effects, that is, how these constructs influence each other across time. In this preregistered three-wave panel study, we tested the directional effects between FER, peer problems, and internalizing symptoms among Finnish school-aged children (n = 3,607; Mage = 8.20, SDage = 0.86; 51% female). The results of random-intercept cross-lagged panel models showed that a low FER accuracy and high biases toward happiness and sadness correlated with higher levels of peer problems and internalizing symptoms at the between-person level. However, we found no evidence of directional effects at the within-person level. Overall, our findings suggest that these constructs might be associated because of shared underlying causes, rather than mutually influencing one another in middle childhood.

Morality in Moderation: Profiles of Moral Self and Behavioral Problems Among Children

ABSTRACT Middle childhood marks an important phase for moral and social-emotional development, yet little research has focused on a combined focus within this age range. A person-centered research approach could capture the complex co-development of the moral self and behavior problems. We thus sought to determine exploratively what emergent subgroups/profiles exist when examining combinations of moral self, emotional, conduct and peer problems in middle childhood. For the study, we recruited 369 children aged five to eleven (M age = 8.19, SD age = 1.30) in Germany. Children completed a questionnaire to assess their moral self (i.e. ascribed importance of moral characteristics), and their parents/caregivers completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Using cluster analytic strategies, three profiles were identified. Profile 1 (high moral/high problems) comprised children exhibiting high moral self, emotional problems, peer problems, and average conduct problems (24.12%). Profile 2 (low moral/high problems) included children with low moral self and high emotional, peer, and conduct problems (14.91%). Profile 3 (moderate moral/low problems) encompassed children with average moral self and lower emotional, peer, and conduct problems (60.98%). We discuss the findings and note that future research should strive for a comprehensive understanding of children’s social-emotional and moral development, considering the intricate interplay between moral self and behavior problems.

Recurrent otitis media and behaviour problems in middle childhood: A longitudinal cohort study.

To investigate the long-term effects of early-life recurrent otitis media (OM) and subsequent behavioural problems in children at the age of 10 years. Data from the Raine Study, a longitudinal pregnancy cohort, were used to categorise children into those with three or more episodes of OM (rOM group) and those without a history of recurrent OM in the first 3 years of life (reference group). The parent report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire was used to assess child behaviour at the age of 10 years. Parental questionnaires were used to report past and present diagnoses of various mental health and developmental conditions, including attention, anxiety, depression, learning, and speech-language problems. Multiple linear and logistic models were used to analyse the data and were adjusted for a fixed set of key confounding variables. The linear regression analysis revealed significant, independent associations between a history of recurrent OM and higher Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire scores, including total, internalising, externalising, emotional, attention/hyperactivity and peer problems subscales. Logistic regression analyses revealed an independent increased likelihood for children in the rOM group to have a diagnosis of attention, anxiety, learning and speech-language problems. Children at 10 years of age with an early history of recurrent OM are more likely to exhibit attentional and behavioural problems when compared to children without a history of recurrent OM. These findings highlight the association between early-life recurrent OM and later behavioural problems that may require professional allied health-care interventions.

Co-occurrence of internalizing difficulties and aggression in early childhood and risk of mental health problems in middle childhood

The goal of this prospective longitudinal study was to explore whether co-occurrent internalizing difficulties and aggression in early childhood convey increased risk for later mental health problems in middle childhood. Participants were mothers from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), who provided assessments of child internalizing difficulties and aggression at ages 3 years (n = 54,644; 26,750 girls) and 5 years (n = 38,177; 18,794 girls), as measures of child depressive, anxiety, conduct-related, and oppositional defiant (OD) symptoms at age 8 years. Using latent profile analyses (LPA) of internalizing difficulties and aggression, four profiles were identified: low-symptom/normative; primarily internalizing; primarily aggressive; and co-occurrent. Among the other results, the co-occurrent group exhibited the highest levels of depressive, anxiety, and oppositional defiant symptoms at 8 years. Most children (78%) remained stable in their profile between ages 3 and 5 years. Among the transition patterns that emerged, transitions were observed both from the normative to a risk profile and vice versa. Children who remained stable within the co-occurrent profile or who transitioned from the co-occurrent profile to one of the other two risk profiles also exhibited more depressive, anxiety, and OD symptoms at 8 years of age, when compared with children who transitioned from the co-occurrent to the normative profile. The heterogeneity between early manifestation of internalizing difficulties and aggression, and specific type of later mental health symptoms not only supports a shared etiology between internalizing and externalizing difficulties but also points toward the need for person-centered monitoring in early childhood with further implications for early identification of difficulties and preventive measures.

Early life exposure to air pollution and psychotic-like experiences, emotional symptoms, and conduct problems in middle childhood

BackgroundAir pollution has been linked to a variety of childhood mental health problems, but results are inconsistent across studies and the effect of exposure timing is unclear. We examined the associations between air pollution exposure at two time-points in early development and psychotic-like experiences (PLEs), and emotional and conduct symptoms, assessed in middle childhood (mean age 11.5 years).MethodsParticipants were 19,932 children selected from the NSW Child Development Study (NSW-CDS) with available linked multi-agency data from birth, and self-reported psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) and psychopathology at age 11–12 years (middle childhood). We used binomial logistic regression to examine associations between exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) at two time-points (birth and middle childhood) and middle childhood PLEs, and emotional and conduct symptoms, with consideration of socioeconomic status and other potential confounding factors in adjusted models.ResultsIn fully adjusted models, NO2 exposure in middle childhood was associated with concurrent PLEs (OR = 1.10, 95% CI = 1.02–1.20). Similar associations with PLEs were found for middle childhood exposure to PM2.5 (OR = 1.05, 95% CI = 1.01–1.09). Neither NO2 nor PM2.5 exposure was associated with emotional symptoms or conduct problems in this study.ConclusionsThis study highlights the need for a better understanding of potential mechanisms of action of NO2 in the brain during childhood.

Vagal Flexibility Moderates the Links between Observed Sensitive Caregiving in Infancy and Externalizing Behavior Problems in Middle Childhood.

This study explored how patterns of physiological stress reactivity underpin individual differences in sensitivity to early rearing experiences and childhood risk for psychopathology. To examine individual differences in parasympathetic functioning, past research has largely relied on static measures of stress reactivity (i.e., residual and change scores) in infancy which may not adequately capture the dynamic nature of regulation across contexts. Using data from a prospective longitudinal study of 206 children (56% African Americans) and their families, this study addressed these gaps by employing the latent basis growth curve model to characterize the dynamic, non-linear patterns of change in infants' respiratory sinus arrhythmia (i.e., vagal flexibility) across the Face-to-Face Still-Face Paradigm. Furthermore, it investigated whether and how infants' vagal flexibility moderates the links between sensitive parenting, observed during a free play task when children were 6 months of age, and parent-report of children's externalizing problems at 7 years of age. Results of the structural equation models revealed that infants' vagal flexibility moderates the predictive relations between sensitive parenting in infancy and children's later externalizing problems. Simple slope analyses revealed that low vagal flexibility, characterized by less suppression and flatter recovery patterns, exacerbated risk for externalizing psychopathology in the context of insensitive parenting. Children with low vagal flexibility also benefited most from sensitive parenting, as indicated by the lower number of externalizing problems. Findings are interpreted in the light of the biological sensitivity to context model and provide evidence for vagal flexibility as a biomarker of individual's sensitivity to early rearing contexts.

School Experiences, Children’s Activites Beyond School and Mental Health in Middle Childhood

School experiences and children’s activities may be important determinants of mental health problems in middle childhood. At this age, children start to engage into diverse activities beyond family and spend most of their time at school. Therefore, understanding the school experiences, children’s activities and their association with mental health is important for schools and families to support children’s well-being. We gathered data on the school experiences, students ‘activities and mental health of 688 schoolchildren and their parent in three cities: Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City and Danang. The questionnaires on children’s activities, school experiences and Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire were used. Results showed that more than half of the students had someone they could trust at school. The higher the age was, the fewer person at school they trusted and could rely on. Regarding children’s activities, the notable findings was that studying with someone in the family was the activity children spent time the least though talking with someone in the family was the one they spent the most. School experiences and children’s activities could predict 2.9% variations of mental health problems.

Chronic, increasing, and decreasing peer victimization trajectories and the development of externalizing and internalizing problems in middle childhood.

Children's peer victimization trajectories and their longitudinal associations with externalizing and internalizing problems were investigated from Grades 2 to 5. Secondary data analysis was performed with the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-K-2011; n = 13,860, M age = 8.1 years old in the spring of Grade 2; 51.1% male, 46.7% White, 13.2% African-American, 25.3% Hispanic or Latino, 8.5% Asian, and 6.1% other or biracial). Children who experienced high and persistent levels of peer victimization (high-chronic victims) exhibited co-occurring externalizing and internalizing problems. Moreover, among high-chronic victims, boys had a more pronounced increase in their externalizing trajectories, and girls had greater increases in their social anxiety trajectories. In contrast, those with decreasing peer victimization across time exhibited signs of recovery, particularly with respect to their social anxiety. These findings elucidated how chronic, increasing, and decreasing victims exhibited distinct patterns in the co-occurring development of their externalizing and internalizing problems, and how findings varied depending on the form of problem behavior and by child sex.

Longitudinal Influences of DRD4 Polymorphism and Early Maternal Caregiving on Personality Development and Problem Behavior in Middle Childhood and Adolescence.

Most studies examining gene-environment effects on self-regulation focus on outcomes early childhood or adulthood. However, only a few studies investigate longitudinal effects during middle childhood and adolescence and compare two domains of early caregiving. In a longitudinal follow-up with a sample of N = 87, we studied the effects of differences in the DRD4 tandem repeat polymorphisms and two domains of early maternal caregiving quality on children’s personality development using Block’s California Child Q-Set (CCQ) at age six and age 12 and on problem behavior at ages six and seven. Early maternal regulation quality predicted later ego-resiliency and aggressiveness. In addition, significant gene-environment interactions revealed that children with the 7+ DRD4 tandem repeat polymorphism and poor maternal regulation quality in infancy showed lower scores in ego-resiliency and higher scores in ego-undercontrol and CCQ aggressiveness. In contrast, children who had experienced effective maternal regulation in infancy showed a comparable level in personality traits and problem behavior as the DRD4 7- group independent of the levels of maternal regulatory behavior. Similarly, longitudinal caregiving × DRD4 interactions were found for behavior problems in middle childhood, especially for oppositional-aggression, inattentive-hyperactivity, and social competence. Early caregiving effects were only found for maternal regulation quality, but not for maternal responsiveness. Effective early maternal regulation in infancy can moderate the negative effect of DRD4 7+ on children’s self-regulation in middle childhood and adolescence. However, maternal responsiveness has no comparable effects. It seems relevant to consider several dimensions of early caregiving and to also measure the environment in more detail in gene-environment studies.

Timing of adoption is associated with electrophysiological brain activity and externalizing problems among children adopted internationally.

This study investigated middle childhood resting electroencephalography (EEG) and behavioral adjustment in 35 internationally adopted children removed from early caregiving adversity between 6 and 29 months of age. Older age of adoption was associated with more immature or atypical profiles of middle childhood cortical function, based on higher relative theta power (4-6Hz), lower relative alpha power (7-12Hz), lower peak alpha frequency, and lower absolute beta (13-20Hz) and gamma (21-50Hz) power. More immature or atypical EEG spectral power indirectly linked older age of adoption with increased risk for externalizing problems in middle childhood. The findings add to existing evidence linking duration of early adverse exposures with lasting effects on brain function and behavioral regulation even years after living in a stable adoptive family setting. Findings underscore the need to minimize and prevent children's exposures to early caregiving adversity, especially in the first years of life. They call for innovative interventions to support neurotypical development in internationally adopted children at elevated risk.

Associations of Behavioral Problems and White Matter Properties of the Cerebellar Peduncles in Boys and Girls Born Full Term and Preterm.

Accumulating evidence suggests that the role of cerebellum includes regulation of behaviors; cerebellar impairment may lead to behavioral problems. Behavioral problems differ by sex: internalizing problems are more common in girls, externalizing problems in boys. Behavioral problems are also elevated in children born preterm (PT) compared to children born full term (FT). The current study examined internalizing and externalizing problems in 8-year-old children in relation to sex, birth-group, fractional anisotropy (FA) of the three cerebellar peduncles (superior, middle, and inferior), and interactions among these predictor variables. Participants (N = 78) were 44 boys (28 PT) and 34 girls (15 PT). We assessed behavioral problems via standardized parent reports and FA of the cerebellar peduncles using deterministic tractography. Internalizing problems were higher in children born PT compared to children born FT (p = .032); the interaction of sex and birth-group was significant (p = .044). When considering the contribution of the mean-tract FA of cerebellar peduncles to behavioral problems, there was a significant interaction of sex and mean-tract FA of the inferior cerebellar peduncle (ICP) with internalizing problems; the slope was negative in girls (p = .020) but not in boys. In boys, internalizing problems were only associated with mean-tract FA ICP in those born preterm (p = .010). We found no other significant associations contributing to internalizing or externalizing problems. Thus, we found sexual dimorphism and birth-group differences in the association of white matter metrics of the ICP and internalizing problems in school-aged children. The findings inform theories of the origins of internalizing behavioral problems in middle childhood and may suggest approaches to treatment at school age.

Fathers' Sensitivity in Infancy and Externalizing Problems in Middle Childhood: The Role of Coparenting.

The present study examined the role of father sensitivity and couple coparenting quality in the first 2 years of life in relation to the development of externalizing behavior problems in middle childhood, focusing on the unique role of fathers. In this study, 125 mothers, fathers, and their first-born children were followed from 8 months to age 7 years. Paternal sensitivity was rated when infants were 8 and 24 months old. Fathers were videotaped at home playing, feeding, and changing their 8-month-old infants’ clothes. They also were videotaped in a lab playing with their 24-month-olds and solving a variety of challenging tasks. At 24 months, competitive coparenting was assessed via videotaped triadic family interactions at home in which families participated in a variety of tasks (i.e., clothes change, eating a snack together and solving tasks). Teachers rated externalizing behavior problems when the children were age 7. Continuity in paternal sensitivity was documented from 8 to 24 months, and paternal sensitivity at 8 months predicted externalizing behavior in middle childhood through father sensitivity at 24 months. Moreover, paternal sensitivity at 8 months predicted competitive coparenting which, in turn, forecast externalizing behavior problems in middle childhood, even after controlling for maternal sensitivity at 8 and 24 months. These findings highlight the unique role of paternal caregiving quality during the first year of life on couple coparenting and children’s subsequent development of externalizing problems and have implications for creating effective interventions to prevent children from developing externalizing disorders.

Executive function moderates the relationship between temperament and psychological difficulties in middle childhood

ABSTRACT The current study examined the possible moderating influence of hot and cool executive function (EF) on the relationship between temperament and psychological difficulties in middle childhood. One hundred and twenty-six children and their parents (n = 105) participated. Children aged between 5 and 12 years completed three hot (motivational decision-making on the Cambridge Gambling Task (CGT), delayed gratification, and Theory of Mind [ToM]) and three cool EF (working memory, inhibition, and attentional set shifting) measures. Children’s parents completed the Behavioral Inhibition Sensitivity (BIS) and Behavioral Approach Sensitivity (BAS) Scale and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Hot EF (CGT, ToM) exacerbated the relationship between BAS and externalizing problems. Neither hot nor cool EF moderated the relationship between BIS and internalizing problems. The current findings provide further evidence of a hot-cool distinction in EF in middle childhood, suggesting that these constructs should be investigated separately when assessing EF. In addition, by considering potential interactions between temperament and EF, clinicians/researchers may be able to predict broad categories of psychological problems in middle childhood.

Sex moderated and RSA mediated effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on behavior problems at age 7

This study was designed to assess whether prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) is associated with sex differences in behavior problems in middle childhood and whether there are sex differences in the way in which parasympathetic functioning mediates the relations between PCE and behavior problems within a diverse low-income sample. Participants included 164 high risk mother-child dyads including 89 PC exposed children and 75 control children participating in an ongoing longitudinal study. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) was measured to assess parasympathetic functioning at 13 months of age and maternal reports of child behavior problems were collected at 7 years of age. Results revealed no significant association between PCE and behavior problems for the full sample. A 2 × 2 Anova revealed a significant interaction between PCE and child sex on internalizing, externalizing, and total behavior problems (F (3, 160) = 13.45, p < .001) with cocaine exposed females averaging the highest behavior problem scores. Results also revealed a statistically significant indirect effect linking cocaine exposure to lower externalizing problems via lower baseline RSA among males. Findings indicate that cocaine exposed females may be more vulnerable to developing behavior problems than cocaine exposed males and that high baseline RSA may present a sex specific risk factor for externalizing problems among exposed males.

Adverse childhood experiences and behavior problems among poor Black children: Nonresident father involvement and single mothers' parenting stress

BackgroundAdverse childhood experiences (ACEs) in early childhood and developmental outcomes during the middle childhood and adolescent years have been understudied among low-income Black families. ObjectiveTo test a model linking economic hardship, single mothers' parenting stress, ACEs, and nonresident fathers' involvement in early childhood to behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence. Participants and settingWe used six waves of longitudinal data from a subsample of 800 unmarried Black mothers, nonresident fathers, and their children (at child birth and ages 1, 3, 5, 9, and 15) from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a nationally representative data set. MethodStructural equation models with latent variables that incorporate path analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were tested. ResultsMothers' economic hardship was associated directly with parenting stress (beta = 0.27, p < .001) and related both directly (beta = 0.22, p < .001) and indirectly (through parenting stress) to the children's increased likelihood of exposure to ACEs (indirect effect = 0.05, p < .001). Nonresident fathers' involvement early on (child's age 1 to 5) was associated directly with reductions in the mothers' economic hardship (beta = −0.18, p < .001), children's reduced exposure to ACEs (beta = −0.15, p < .001), and fewer behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence (beta = −0.10, p < .001). ConclusionNonresident Black fathers' involvement in single-mother families may buffer the adverse consequences over time for economically and socially disadvantaged Black children of exposure to ACEs in early childhood. Interventions that encourage sustained involvement by nonresident Black fathers with young children and their single mothers are recommended.

Maternal and paternal mental health problems and the risk of offspring depression in late adolescence: findings from the Raine study

Background There are limited studies on the risk of depressive symptoms in adolescent offspring exposed to parental mental health problems in middle childhood. Aim We investigated the association between parental mental health problems, particularly paternal emotional problems and maternal symptoms of anxiety and depression, and the risk of depressive symptoms in adolescent offspring aged 17. Methods The study included 995 parent-offspring pairs from the 1989–91 birth cohort (the Raine Study) in Western Australia. Log-binomial regression was used to assess the associations. Results An increased risk of depression symptoms was observed in the adolescent offspring of mothers with depressive [RR 1.45, 95% CI 1.13–1.86] as well as anxiety symptoms [RR 1.43, 95% CI 1.09–1.87].Compared to those non-exposed, offspring whose mothers reported comorbid anxiety and depressive symptoms were more likely to have developed depressive symptoms by late adolescence [RR 1.63, 95%CI 1.11–2.38]. An increased risk of depressive symptoms was also seen in the offspring of fathers with emotional problems [RR 1.29, 95%CI 1.01–1.53]. Conclusion Our findings suggest an increased risk of depressive symptoms in the adolescent offspring of parents with mental health problems, specifically paternal emotional problems (29%) and maternal anxiety (43%), depression (45%), as well as comorbid anxiety and depressive symptoms (63%).