Probability Of Going Research Articles

Factors associated with the use of dental services in diabetic people

The use of dental services prevents oral diseases where its prevalence is associated with chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus (DM) that also has increased risks with age. Therefore, this observational, analytical and crosssectional study was conducted among 3,882 people. Data used for analysis in this research was collected from the Demographic and Family Health Survey of Peru (ENDES) from 2019 to 2021. Results from poisson regression analysis showed female gender had 1.02 times the probability of going to the dental service; likewise, people who were 91 to 100 years old had 12% more, the probability, like those with secondary education, had 8% more and those with the highest average, richest and richest wealth index had 20% more, 29% more and 29% more, respectively, the probability of going to the dental health service, as opposed to those who were very poor. The study concluded that there are several sociodemographic factors (such as being female, age progressed, natural region, those with high school, wealth index, type of residence) and personal factors (history of hypertension (HTN), physical disability) associated with a lack of access to dental services in people over 60 years old.

Adaptive decision-making depends on pupil-linked arousal in rats performing tactile discrimination tasks.

Perceptual decision-making is a dynamic cognitive process and is shaped by many factors, including behavioral state, reward contingency, and sensory environment. To understand the extent to which adaptive behavior in decision-making is dependent on pupil-linked arousal, we trained head-fixed rats to perform perceptual decision-making tasks and systematically manipulated the probability of Go and No-go stimuli while simultaneously measuring their pupil size in the tasks. Our data demonstrated that the animals adaptively modified their behavior in response to the changes in the sensory environment. The response probability to both Go and No-go stimuli decreased as the probability of the Go stimulus being presented decreased. Analyses within the signal detection theory framework showed that while the animals' perceptual sensitivity was invariant, their decision criterion increased as the probability of the Go stimulus decreased. Simulation results indicated that the adaptive increase in the decision criterion will increase possible water rewards during the task. Moreover, the adaptive decision-making is dependent on pupil-linked arousal as the increase in the decision criterion was the largest during low pupil-linked arousal periods. Taken together, our results demonstrated that the rats were able to adjust their decision-making to maximize rewards in the tasks, and that adaptive behavior in perceptual decision-making is dependent on pupil-linked arousal.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Perceptual decision-making is a dynamic cognitive process and is shaped by many factors. However, the extent to which changes in sensory environment result in adaptive decision-making remains poorly understood. Our data provided new experimental evidence demonstrating that the rats were able to adaptively modify their decision criterion to maximize water reward in response to changes in the statistics of the sensory environment. Furthermore, the adaptive decision-making is dependent on pupil-linked arousal.

Why childcare workers work when ill: organizational position matter

ABSTRACT Working despite being ill is a challenging behaviour in the childcare sector. Whereas previous research on presenteeism often ignores whether a subject is a leader or an employee, we examine herein how organizational position affects presenteeism and the reasons for presenteeism among childcare workers. By analysing data from a two wave panel of 827 employees and leaders from the occupational group of childcare workers, we find that presenteeism is higher among employees than among leaders, however, not when we control for absenteeism. Employees and leaders have different reasons for going to work despite being ill. For instance, leaders have a higher probability of going to work ill because they want to avoid creating a backlog of work tasks. In contrast, employees have a higher probability of presenteeism out of consideration for colleagues. Overall, the findings provide insights into how presenteeism is affected by different organizational positions in the childcare sector.

Stays abroad of pre-service teachers and their relation to teachers' beliefs about cultural diversity in classrooms

A stay abroad is expected to help teachers to improve their intercultural competence and, thus, their teaching of multicultural classes. Based on a sample of n = 1860 teachers at different stages of their early career in Germany, the study analyzes the different forms of stays abroad during teacher education and their relation to cultural beliefs and self-efficacy. The analyses show that sociodemographic and individual characteristics such as gender, academic and migration background are not significantly associated with the probability of going abroad. Overall, significant relations were demonstrated between stays abroad and multicultural and egalitarian beliefs and self-efficacy in teaching multicultural classes.

Improving trajectories of amphibians in wildlife passages

Linear transport infrastructure can alter the viability of populations and wildlife passages are used to mitigate their impacts. The assessment of their outcomes is often limited to recording the use of the tunnels by a focal species. For amphibians, the effectiveness of tunnels is poorly evaluated with little information about whether certain features encourage individuals that may be reluctant to pass through tunnels. One study showed that acoustic enrichment with anuran calls can increase the crossing of tunnels by newts. This study recorded the behavior of three European amphibian species in three tunnels, tracking them with PIT tags and detection with four RFID antennas installed on the floor of the tunnels. We tested (1) the effectiveness of the antennas in detecting the species, (2) the effect of the length of the tunnels, and (3) the effect of acoustic enrichment. Using a multi-state capture–recapture model, we evaluated the probability of an individual advancing between the tunnel sections. The effectiveness of the antennas varied according to species, higher for Urodela species than for Anuran species. Several types of paths were detected (constant and varying speeds, halt, and back-and-forth movements). The fire salamander and the great crested newt individuals exhibited a similar variety of movements in the tunnels (21 and 40 m length). Triturus cristatus made similar movements in the tunnels with and without acoustic enrichment. In water frogs, all the individuals (n = 16) made a complete crossing in the tunnel with enrichment vs. 75% (n = 71) in the tunnel without enrichment. In T. cristatus, the probability of going forward at the entrance of the tunnel was 18% higher with enrichment in one tunnel. No significant effect of acoustic enrichment was observed in two others tunnels for this species. In Pelophylax esculentus, this probability was 78% higher in the tunnel with enrichment. This multi-antenna RFID system was able to provide valuable information on the behavior of these small animals when traversing the tunnels, as well as to test the effectiveness of tunnel features. The findings indicate that acoustic enrichment to attract animals to specific locations holds promise as a new conservation tool.

Evidence for non-selective response inhibition in uncertain contexts revealed by combined meta-analysis and Bayesian analysis of fMRI data

Response inhibition is typically considered a brain mechanism selectively triggered by particular “inhibitory” stimuli or events. Based on recent research, an alternative non-selective mechanism was proposed by several authors. Presumably, the inhibitory brain activity may be triggered not only by the presentation of “inhibitory” stimuli but also by any imperative stimuli, including Go stimuli, when the context is uncertain. Earlier support for this notion was mainly based on the absence of a significant difference between neural activity evoked by equiprobable Go and NoGo stimuli. Equiprobable Go/NoGo design with a simple response time task limits potential confounds between response inhibition and accompanying cognitive processes while not preventing prepotent automaticity. However, previous neuroimaging studies used classical null hypothesis significance testing, making it impossible to accept the null hypothesis. Therefore, the current research aimed to provide evidence for the practical equivalence of neuronal activity in the Go and NoGo trials using Bayesian analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data. Thirty-four healthy participants performed a cued Go/NoGo task with an equiprobable presentation of Go and NoGo stimuli. To independently localize brain areas associated with response inhibition in similar experimental conditions, we performed a meta-analysis of fMRI studies using equal-probability Go/NoGo tasks. As a result, we observed overlap between response inhibition areas and areas that demonstrate the practical equivalence of neuronal activity located in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, premotor cortex, and left inferior frontal gyrus. Thus, obtained results favour the existence of non-selective response inhibition, which can act in settings of contextual uncertainty induced by the equal probability of Go and NoGo stimuli.

Sustainability and holidays plans in Covid times: an analysis of Portuguese residents' intentions

Abstract: This study focuses on micro-environmental factors (Casado-Aranda et al, 2021) related to changes in consumers' travel behaviours, arising from COVID-19. It seeks to understand if risk perception associated with COVID had an impact on travel intentions of residents in Portugal and if there are changes, regarding more sustainable choices, in 2021 summer holiday’s intentions. Data was collected through an online questionnaire between December 2020 and March 2021 (overlapping the first 3 months of the vaccination process, corresponding to 5% of the full vaccination of the Portuguese (Our World in Data, 2021) and reflects short-term effects (Miao et al, 2021) on the travel behaviours of residents in Portugal (n=610). Almost half of the participants (48,5%) responded positively to the probability of going on holidays in 2021. From these, the majority (64,2%) intended to travel only to domestic destinations, mostly justified by the willingness to help the country (54,5% of those who considered likely to go on holidays) and not as much as a risk perception associated to the pandemic (only referred by 26,8%). As for holiday’s consumption intentions, residents expressed concerns that may have a positive impact on the socio economical sustainability of the destinations. In fact, from those who considered likely to travel, 71,6% referred that they will prefer national products, 64,5% will value more than before certified touristic services and 57,4% intends to shop mostly in small traditional business. In terms of environmental sustainability, 59,5% will have an increased concern in reserving touristic services environmentally responsible. Results emphasize the need for reflection on the effective positioning of sustainability issues concerning the tourism sector’s future. COVID-19 has created an opportunity for tourism to review and relaunch itself, based on more responsible and sustainable approaches (Brouder, 2020; Casado-Aranda et al, 2021; Jones and Confort, 2020). It’s important to understand to what extent consumers are willing to assume more sustainable behaviours in their future travel options. These results ask for future research regarding the importance of understanding the difference between tourists’ stated intentions and effective actions when it comes to sustainable travel behaviour.

Assessment of the Current Surveillance System for Human Leptospirosis in Ecuador by Decision Analytic Modeling.

Leptospirosis is a globally disseminated zoonotic disease with no national surveillance systems. On the other hand, surveillance is crucial for improving population health, and surveillance systems produce data that motivates action. Unfortunately, like many other countries, Ecuador put in place a monitoring system that has never been tested. The goal of this study was to use scenario tree modeling to assess the sensitivity of Ecuador's current national surveillance system to human leptospirosis as the basis for an economic assessment of the system. We created a decision-tree model to analyze the current system's sensitivity. The inputs were described as probabilities distributions, and the model assessed the program's sensitivity as an output. The model also considers the geographical and weather variations across Ecuador's three continental regions: Andean, Amazonia, and the Coast. Several data sources were used to create the model, including leptospirosis records from Ecuador's Ministry of Public Health, national and international literature, and expert elicitation, all of which were incorporated in a Bayesian framework. We were able to determine the most critical parameters influencing each scenario's output (CSU) sensitivity through sensitivity analysis. The Coast region had the best sensitivity scenario, with a median of 0.85% (IC 95% 0.41–0.99), followed by the Amazonia with a median of 0.54% (CI 95% 0.18–0.99) and the Andes with a median of 0.29% (CI 95% 0.02–0.89). As per the sensitivity study, the most influential criteria on the system's sensitivity were “Attendance or probability of going to a health center” and “probability of having symptoms,” notably for the Coast and Amazonia Regions.

Estimates of inpatient admission rates and associated costs for infants before and after China\u2019s universal two-child policy

BackgroundChina implemented a universal two-child policy in 2015. It is important to understand infants’ medical utilization in the context of this policy to inform health policies and resource allocation.MethodsThis study utilized a 20% random sample of administrative data from China’s Urban and Rural Basic Medical Insurance (URBMI) in one of the largest southern Chinese cities from January 2015 to June 2018. Ordinary least squares models were used to estimate changes in inpatient admission rates and costs for infants between 0 and 6 months old after the implementation of China’s universal two-child policy.ResultsThe overall inpatient admission rate was 27.2% in 2015 and 31.3% in 2017. Compared with 2015, there was an increase in inpatient admission rates for infants 1 month old or younger (coef = 0.038, 95% CI = 0.029 to 0.047, p < .001) and infants 6 months old or younger (coef = 0.041, 95% CI = 0.030 to 0.052, p < .001) in 2017. The increase was larger for male infants than for female ones. The average inpatient admission cost was 8412.3 RMB ($1320.61) (SD = 15,088.2). There was no increase in inpatient admission costs overall. The average length of hospital stay was 7.3 days, the probability of going to a tertiary hospital was 76.2%, and the share of out-of-pocket costs was 53.0% for all diseases.ConclusionAfter the implementation of the universal two-child policy in China, there was a significant increase in inpatient admission rates, especially for male infants. The overall associated costs did not change, but the increase in admission rates caused additional economic burdens for families and for social health insurance. Understanding the healthcare utilization of infants in the universal two-child period can provide insight for healthcare resource allocation in a time of dramatic changes in population policy.

The expansion of higher education and household saving in China

We examine whether access to higher education impacts household saving rates. A 2-period model of household saving decisions demonstrates why increased college opportunities induce households with children to save more. We examine this theory using survey data from Chinese households during the unprecedented education expansion. Using estimates of the change in the expected probability of college attendance, we estimate the effect on household saving rates by comparing households before and after the reform. We find that a 10-percentage point increase in the probability of going to college raises the saving rate by 5.9 percentage points.

Long-term Dynamical Stability in the Outer Solar System. I. The Regular and Chaotic Evolution of the 34 Largest Trans-Neptunian Objects

Abstract We carried out an extensive analysis of the stability of the outer solar system, making use of the frequency analysis technique over short-term integrations of nearly 100,000 test particles, as well as a statistical analysis of 200 1 Gyr long numerical simulations, which consider the mutual perturbations of the giant planets and the 34 largest trans-Neptunian objects (we have called all 34 objects “dwarf planets,” DPs, even if probably only the largest of them are true DPs). From the frequency analysis, we produced statistical diffusion maps for a wide region of the a–e phase-space plane; we also present the average diffusion time for orbits as a function of perihelion. We later turned our attention to the 34 DPs, making an individualized analysis for each of them and producing a first approximation of their future stability. From the 200 distinct realizations of the orbital evolution of the 34 DPs, we classified the sample into three categories, including 17 stable, 11 unstable, and 6 resonant objects; we also found that, statistically, two objects from the sample will leave the trans-Neptunian region within the next gigayear, most likely being ejected from the solar system, but with a nonnegligible probability of going inside the orbit of Neptune, either to collide with a giant planet or even falling to the inner solar system, where our simulations are no longer able to resolve their continuous evolution.

Correlates Of Recidivism Among Released Prisoners: A Study of Kakamega County, Kenya

Released prisoners in Kenya have a 75% likelihood of committing another crime and a 50% probability of going to jail two years after their discharge from prison custody. From the trend of recidivism in Kenya, there are a staggeringly high number of offenders being incarcerated and eventually released back to the community, and the high risk of re-arrest and re-incarceration is a concern for policymakers, criminologists and correctional managers. This study examined the influence of offender characteristics, offender reintegration and community perception and attitude regarding recidivism in Kakamega County, Kenya. The study adopted a survey research design. Findings reveal a statistically significant relationship between offender characteristics and recidivism. In addition, offender reintegration and community perception and attitude towards offenders greatly influence recidivism. From the study, it is recommended that the government provide correctional officers with the required resources to use the actuarial risk assessment model. The model is applied to the released offenders to predict the future probability of recidivism. In addition, it is recommended that the government and the various correctional stakeholders come up with an integrated approach that specifically targets successful re-entry of offenders upon release from prison. Finally, it is recommended that the government develop programmes targeting awareness of the community members to desist from stigmatising ex-offenders. Key terms: Correlates, Recidivism, Prisoners, Kenya DOI: 10.7176/JLPG/109-07 Publication date: May 31 st 2021

Worker and firm responses to trade shocks: The UK-China case

We exploit the recent surge in Chinese export growth to study the effects of a trade shock on workers and firms in a foreign market, the UK, in the period 2000–2007. We find that individuals initially employed in sectors highly exposed to growth in imports from China experienced lower income growth and remained out of employment longer than workers in sectors that were less exposed to import competition. The effects are heterogeneous, with initially lower-paid workers suffering more in terms of employment and earnings than those initially better-paid, and female workers experiencing a greater relative fall in total earnings than males, mostly through reduced years of employment. Plants in industries more exposed to Chinese products displayed lower employment growth and higher probability of going out of business than plants in sectors more insulated from competition with China, with stronger effects for larger plants.

What the COVID-19 school closure left in its wake: Evidence from a regression discontinuity analysis in Japan

To control the spread of COVID-19, the national government of Japan abruptly started the closure of elementary schools on March 2, 2020, but preschools were exempted from this nationwide school closure. Taking advantage of this natural experiment, we examined how the proactive closure of elementary schools affected various outcomes related to children and family well-being. To identify the causal effects of the school closure, we exploited the discontinuity in the probability of going to school at a certain threshold of age in months and conducted fuzzy regression discontinuity analyses. The data are from a large-scale online survey of mothers whose firstborn children were aged 4 to 10 years. The results revealed a large increase in children’s weight and in mothers’ anxiety over how to raise their children. On the outcomes related to marital relationships, such as the incidence of domestic violence and the quality of marriage, we did not find statistically significant changes. These findings together suggest that school closures could have large unintended detrimental effects on non-academic outcomes among children.

Non-Cognitive Characteristics and Higher Education Choices

Non-cognitive skills, shaped by genetics and early socialization experiences, are an important component of human capital that affects a number of social and economic outcomes throughout the life course, including individual educational choices. This study is focused on the contribution of non-cognitive skills to higher education trajectories: intention to study in college, probability of going to college, major choice, and college selectivity. The study uses data from the Russia Longitudinal Monitoring Survey of the Higher School of Economics (RLMSHSE) for 2011 and 2016–2018. Non-cognitive skills are measured using the Big Five personality traits and locus of control, the two most prominent psychological concepts in the field. Educational intentions of adolescents aged 15–19 and past educational choices of young people aged 23–29 are analyzed using probit models and multinomial and ordinal logistic regressions. The psychological traits of openness to experience, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and internal locus of control are found to be the most powerful factors affecting educational intentions and choices, but results vary as a function of gender and socioeconomic characteristics.

Прогнозування запасів промислового підприємства в умовах волатильності попиту

The aim of the article is to provide tools for obtaining reliable forecasts of the level of inventories of the enterprise in conditions of volatility in demand for products. Most types of demand for industrial products are unstable, so it is important to form stocks based on demand forecasts to reduce logistics risks. The results of the analyses. Analytical tools for forecasting maximum level of inventories in conditions of volatility of demand for products of machine-building enterprises have been developed, which provides an opportunity to obtain the most reliable sales forecast and estimate the maximum required stocks for a certain type of demand. The method, which is obtained by analytical tools, is based on a three-stage algorithm: a) identification of trends in a time series of sales; b) obtaining optimal sales forecasting models; c) plotting of interval forecasts of product sales and risk assessment of the formation of its maximum stocks. The developed methodology identifies logistics risks, which depend on sales forecasts, for nine machine-building enterprises of Ukraine. A method for statistical assessment of logistics risks of machine-building enterprises by confidence intervals has been developed, in which maximum stocks are determined by two confidence intervals of sales forecasts, and the risk of error is associated with the appropriate levels of reliability of these intervals. It is proposed to build the upper limits of two confidence intervals, for example, 95% and 99%, according to the forecast inventory level estimates, and to consider them as maximum inventory level estimates with corresponding probabilities. The risk of stock shortages is defined as the probability of going beyond the upper limit of the corresponding interval. It is proved that the dynamics of monthly or quarterly sales of enterprises can be typed by four patterns: the presence of seasonal fluctuations and trends; the presence of purely seasonal fluctuations without a pronounced trend; no seasonal fluctuations, but the presence of a trend; no seasonal fluctuations and trends. Conclusions and perspectives for further research. It is proved that the volatility of monthly or quarterly sales volumes of enterprises can be typed by four patterns: 1) the presence of seasonal fluctuations and trends; 2) the presence of purely seasonal fluctuations without a pronounced trend; 3) no seasonal fluctuations, but the presence of a trend; 4) no seasonal fluctuations and trends. Based on this, the theoretical and methodological principles and analytical tools for forecasting the maximum stocks of an industrial enterprise in conditions of demand volatility were improved. Keywords: seasonality, volatility, inventory level forecasting, maximum stocks, demand forecasting.

“Good school” as a self-fulfilling prophecy

Problem and purpose. The theoretical problem considered in the article is the effect of the phenomenon of “self-fulfilling prophecies” in the context of students’ and their parents’ choice of educational institutions. To illustrate, the emergence of a situation is investigated in which the choice of future strong students is determined by the level of the school, which depends on the choice of previous strong students. Research methods. A simulation experiment was conducted using MS Excel. A small community of “students” was modeled who get into “schools” during several cycles. Each “student” was assigned a randomly generated score, which is an integer number in the range from 2 to 5. For each student, the probability of going to one of the schools was calculated. Based on this distribution, a “rating” was calculated for each school – the average score of the “students” who have “chosen” this school. Starting from the second cycle, the distribution of “students” to “schools” was based on the average score received by schools in the previous cycle. Based on the results of all admission cycles, the indicator of leadership reproduction was calculated – the number of repeats of leading position that belongs to each school. Results. The main result of the experiment is the possibility to analyze the constant reproduction of leadership (fixing the random advantage of a school occurred in the first cycle in subsequent cycles of choice) in connection with selectivity. The relationship between these two indicators is non-linear, and as the level of selectivity grows, the probability of “good schools” appearing as perception artifacts increases rapidly, quickly reaching 100%. Interpretation of the results allows to conclude that individual orientations on the choice of educational institutions, being aggregated, contribute to the effect of “self-fulfilling prophecy” in relation to the appearance in the public consciousness of the perception of a particular educational institution as “good”, “prestigious”, etc. Conclusion. This pattern of behavior allows to predict the stratification of educational institutions by prestige under the influence of selective preferences, which must be taken into account in decision-making when forming educational policy.

Is risk aversion related to occupational choice: evidence from 1996 PSID

ABSTRACT This paper investigates to what extent individuals’ risk aversion are correlated with the choice of occupation which differs from earnings risk by using 1996 PSID. Following Kimball et al. (2009), we first impute the individuals’ coefficient of relative risk aversion based on personal characteristics. Then, on the aggregate level, we find workers who are more risk averse will sort into occupations with low earnings risk. On the individual level, for one-unit increase in the coefficient of relative risk aversion, the probability of going to a more risky occupation decreases by 13.5%.

Natural course of Baker’s cysts in a total knee arthroplasty population

Aims and Objectives:Baker’s cysts are known to be a source of discomfort and pain due to pressure on adjacent structures. They are not uncommon in patients eligible for total knee arthroplasty (TKA). Since there is a paucity of medium-term studies that assess the natural course of Baker’s cyst following TKA, in this study we report the one- and five-year outcomes of patients to elucidate the state of their Baker’s cyst following TKA.Materials and Methods:In this prospective case series, 102 TKA patients were included. All patients who received surgery had a diagnosis of primary osteoarthritis and had preoperatively presented with a Baker’s cyst. Sonography was performed to evaluate the existence and the gross size of the cyst before TKA, and sonography was repeated at one and five years after TKA. Symptoms potentially attributable to the Baker’s cyst were recorded at each assessment. In addition, the five-year assessment included a sonographic assessment of the anterior aspect of the knee to identify joint effusion.Results:Ninety-one patients were available for the five-year assessment (with an 89% follow-up rate). After one and five years, Baker’s cyst was still present in 87 (85%) and 30 (33%) patients, respectively. Of those patients who retained a Baker’s cyst at one-year follow up, 31 patients (36%) had sustained popliteal symptoms. Of those patients who continued to have a Baker’s cyst at five years, 17 patients (56.7%) were still symptomatic. The probability of entering remission was dependent on the size of the Baker’s cyst at baseline (odds ratio, 1.41; p = 0.025). The mean preoperative cyst size was 14.5 cm2. At one and five years postoperatively, the mean cyst size was 10.6 cm2 and 9.9 cm2, respectively. At five years, no association between cyst size and popliteal symptoms was found.Conclusion:Five years after TKA, the majority of the Baker’s cysts that were present at baseline had gone into remission. The probability of going into remission was dependent on the size of the Baker’s cyst at baseline.

Entrepreneurial Quality and Startup Growth in India

This study extends and applies the methodology proposed by Guzman and Stern (2015) to estimate and map the quality of entrepreneurship in India, using government census data for 1,542,555 registered micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs), spanning all 29 states in India. To our knowledge, this is the first study of its kind to quantify and characterize the quality of entrepreneurship in India based on cohort growth outcomes and firm characteristics at the time of registration. Methodologically, we define two types of growth outcomes: attaining a “public” corporation status within a set timeframe after founding (5-years, 10-years, 15-years), and achieving a set annual employee growth rate. We find that a small set of firm characteristics established at founding predicted long-run growth outcomes. Firms’ cluster status at founding predicted 58 percent higher probability of going “public” within 10 years, the original purchase value of assets predicted 62 percent higher probability of going public and 66 percent higher probability of employee growth, and urban location predicted 35 percent lower probability of going public and 33 percent lower probability of employee growth. Using these results, we then estimate entrepreneurial quality based on the Entrepreneurial Quality Index (EQI) and the Regional Entrepreneurship Cohort Potential Index (RECPI). We find that spatial patterns of high-growth entrepreneurship in India followed similar coastal effects and university-hub effects as those documented in the United States. We conclude with directions for future research.