Private Parking Spaces Research Articles

A blockchain-enabled private parking space allocation with improved parking space utilization

With the rapid development of the world’s infrastructure, we are moving towards making cities smart, known as smart cities. To make smart cities sustainable, designing efficient solutions is needed to reduce traffic congestion due to the lack of parking spaces within the constrained land areas of many metropolitan city centres. Parking problems in urban areas can be reduced by sharing vacant private parking spaces with others. In this work, we propose a decentralized and shared private parking management system using blockchain, which helps private parking owners and users fulfil their demands without the involvement of central authority. The proposed parking allocation method assigns parking to a single user from multiple parking providers, but the requester does not need to relocate between different parking spaces. The proposed method significantly improves private parking space utilization compared to a state-of-the-art parking allocation system. Hence, the system satisfies more user requests and generates more profit for parking owners than the state-of-the-art parking allocation system. The proposed system is a winning strategy because it maximizes the utilization of private parking spaces for the entire community’s benefit and helps to reduce traffic congestion. Experiments conducted in the simulated environment validate the benefits of the proposed model and show that it outperforms the state-of-the-art parking allocation system. A prototype of the proposed system is also developed in the Ethereum blockchain to validate the work, and the gas cost used to deploy the proposed model is analyzed.

Private parking space owners’ choice behavior of different sharing modes: hybrid choice model using justified latent variables

ABSTRACT Private parking spaces account for a large proportion of potential parking resources, whose utilization rate could be raised by sharing them. To investigate private parking space owners’ sharing choice behavior, this paper applies a framework of Combined Technology Acceptance Model and the Theory of Planned Behavior for a more comprehensive consideration of psychological attitudes on these suppliers in urban residential areas. A web-based survey was conducted to collect data. The justified factors are then incorporated in hybrid choice model (HCM) as latent variables. HCM results showed that incorporation of latent variables such as perceived risk provides better fitting effect than traditional multinominal models, and that revenues and community participance are influential factors for sharing choice. Our findings indicate behavioral intention framework could serve as argumentation of rational selection of latent variables. These findings could also support better implementation of shared parking from managerial and operational perspectives.

Walking (In)Convenience

Problem, research strategy, and findings As active transport planning gains momentum worldwide, our study underscores the importance of connecting people and places by focusing on the convenience dimension of walkability. Specifically, we used the pedestrian detour ratio (PDR) to measure the degree of circuity of a walking route. We considered residential buildings as origins and 10 different types of public facilities as destinations within the walkable range of 1 km. This led to a territory-wide analysis covering 3.85 million origin–destination pairs in Hong Kong. Overall, walking convenience was the best in the central business district (CBD), but variations existed by district and by facility. Through an assessment matrix, 35.8% of home–destination pairs required attention. When examined at the street block and village cluster levels, walking inconvenience was associated with vehicle-oriented street blocks (with higher vehicular traffic and more private parking spaces), high-income areas, and difficult terrain. Pedestrian crossings, major roads, and bus stops enhanced route directness. This research is a first step in helping quantify the PDR distribution across different cities and their various functional areas. Takeaway for practice In areas where walking is inconvenient, treatments to calm vehicular traffic and facilitate pedestrian crossings should be stipulated. In the longer term, we recommend integrating the PDR in the design and planning of streets, especially around essential facilities.

Accelerating Benders decomposition approach for shared parking spaces allocation considering parking unpunctuality and no-shows

By allocating idle private parking spaces to demanders, shared parking reuses idle resources and effectively alleviates parking problems. In practice, there may be parking unpunctuality behavior of demanders, as well as the potential no-show behavior of owners and demanders. These stochastic factors affect the allocation of shared parking spaces. In this paper, we study the shared parking spaces allocation problem considering parking unpunctuality and no-shows. First, the allocation problem considering parking unpunctuality is formulated as a stochastic programming model, with the objective to maximize the profit of the shared parking platform. Sample average approximation (SAA) combined with an accelerating Benders decomposition (ABD) algorithm is exploited to solve the model effectively, where initial optimality cuts are explored to speed up the convergence of the algorithm. Then the proposed approach is extended to incorporate no-shows. Numerical experiments show great performance of the proposed approach. The experiments also show that the fluctuations of the unpunctual time and the no-show probability have a significant impact on the shared parking system, and balanced supply and demand is helpful to increase the profit of the platform and the satisfaction of demanders.

Research on Sustainable Countermeasures for Shared Parking Development

Utilizing "shared parking" can effectively enhance the utilization of private parking spaces, thereby increasing the overall supply of parking spots and contributing to alleviating the urban "parking challenges." Based on the current research status of shared parking both domestically and internationally, this article focuses on analyzing the existing issues and proposes corresponding strategies and recommendations to address these challenges.

A novel mechanism for private parking space sharing: The Vickrey–Clarke–Groves auction with scale control

There can be many vacant private parking spaces near locations of excess parking demand. How can we provide the right incentives to potential suppliers and demanders so that they are shared in the market? We consider a parking-sharing platform in which each agent supplies a parking space and needs another one. We propose a novel parking-sharing mechanism that amends the well-known Vickrey–Clarke–Groves auction with the notion of scale control, which ex-ante constrains the number of agents who are offered a parking space by the platform. We show that such a mechanism is incentive compatible and individually rational. We illustrate that it can easily achieve budget balance with a proper choice of scale. We also extend our auction to include only suppliers and only demanders in addition to the agents who are simultaneously suppliers and demanders.

Shared Parking Decision Behavior of Parking Space Owners and Car Travelers Based on Prospect Theory—A Case Study of Nanchang City, China

Shared parking improves the utilization rate of parking spaces by taking advantage of temporal and spatial differences, which is conducive to alleviating parking problems. From the perspective of bounded rationality, this paper studies the factors that influence the decision behavior of parking space owners and car travelers (non-residential drivers who have parking needs near residential areas) in sharing parking spaces. Prospect theory was used to analyze the bounded rational behavior characteristics of parking space owners and car travelers, and a value function model with rental price as the reference point was established. Combined with the survey data of the Xinhuangcheng district in Nanchang City, China, the shared parking space rental price that satisfied both parties was analyzed in this case study. The results of the study show that factors such as personal characteristics and behavioral habits affect the decision behavior of parking space owners and car travelers, and that rental price is a key factor. When the rental price of parking spaces is close to the maximum price desired by the owner, the owner feels the benefit and is willing to share the private parking space, but when the rental price differs greatly from the maximum price desired by the owner, the owner feels the loss and is not willing to share the parking space. From the survey data, it can be concluded that the ideal rental price of shared parking spaces around the survey area is 5 CNY/h. This paper provides a theoretical basis and guidance for the formulation of shared parking policies, which can help solve parking problems.

Powering the transition: Public charging stations and electric vehicle adoption in Montreal, Canada

With an increasing interest for electric vehicles (EV) and the associated charging needs, understanding how public charging infrastructure networks impact the adoption of such vehicles is central for planners and policymakers. While most studies are conducted at the regional or national scales, urban contexts present specificities for the deployment of these networks, given the scarcity of private parking spaces and the strong competition for land. Using data from a survey (n = 642) conducted in Montreal, Canada, this work investigates the influence of public charging infrastructure accessibility on EV adoption in an urban context. Three measures of accessibility are analyzed: 1) objective (number of charging stations near home), 2) perceived (perceptions about the current public charging network), and 3) prospective (expectations on the public charging network in five years). The findings reveal the importance of perceived and prospective accessibility measures as opposed to objective ones, and thus demonstrate that the deployment of public charging networks is an issue tied by perceptions. We also find that non-EV owners underestimate their accessibility to public chargers, thereby illustrating how perceptions may vary across individuals. The results suggest that, in addition to expanding the public charging network, efforts aiming at better informing citizens on the presence and the locations of these charging facilities could contribute to increasing EV adoption. This study highlights the importance of perceptions and expectations and provides a nuanced understanding of how integrating accessibility-based policies into electrification plans might speed up EV adoption in metropolitan areas.

Attitudes, personality traits and private parking space owners’ willingness to engage in shared parking schemes: a hybrid prospect theoretic model

ABSTRACT To develop effective strategies for the supply of shared parking, the present study investigates factors influencing the willingness of private parking space owners to engage in shared parking. Apart from the attributes of shared parking options, unobserved latent variables measuring attitudes and personality traits, are assumed to play a role in the decision-making process. This study estimates a hybrid prospect theoretic model to investigate the willingness of parking space owners to share their parking space. The latent variables include personality traits and attitudes that are incorporated into a prospect theoretic choice model. Non-linear effects of the latent variables and the interaction effects between personality traits and attitudes are examined. Results indicate that non-linear effects and interactions significantly improve the overall explanatory power of the model. The research findings may help in developing shared parking policies and informing companies and governments how to promote shared parking schemes.

Could the Incentive Policy of Shared Parking Be Sustainable? The Viewpoint of Personal Risk Aversion

Using an incentive measure to encourage people to share their private parking spaces could be an effective strategy for urban parking problems. This paper discusses an innovative mechanism of shared parking, “FlexPass,” which applies a reverse auction in which drivers propose bids in line with their individual expectations to share their idle parking spaces. The auction mechanism, hypotheses on bidding process principles, the competitive environment, and the risk-averse decisions of providers with regard to parking spaces are analysed to explore the sustainability of the economic benefits obtained for FlexPass parking spaces. A total of 216 respondents from the University of California, Berkeley, were invited to participate in bidding in an actual survey during their daily use of parking spaces. The analytical results show that operational rules based on risk aversion can enable profit-seeking with a bounded capability to obtain considerable economic benefits and release parking resources in an environment of demand competition. Particularly in some scenarios, FlexPass would sacrifice a certain monetary income to ensure the perceived benefits of parking space providers. With the improvement of people’s enthusiasm for participating in shared parking, the benefits to individuals and parking lots would be further enhanced, suggesting that our mechanism can operate sustainably over the long term. These findings are helpful for policymakers to formulate feasible shared parking policies from the perspective of monetary incentives.

Modeling Determinants of Carpooling Intentions in Jordan

The main objectives of this study are to understand the motivations for and deterrents to the adoption of carpooling, and model people’s intentions to adopt it in Jordan. A cross-sectional survey based on a conceptual framework was designed to answer all the research questions. A total of 630 valid responses were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling techniques. The study found that the main barriers to the adoption of carpooling are factors related to privacy, security, and trust. In addition, there are no incentives offered by companies or any official institution to encourage the adoption of carpooling, and the insurance system disadvantages the driver. An important finding is that providing private parking spaces will encourage more than half of the participants to adopt carpooling. In addition, decisions to adopt carpooling or not were found to be associated with travel time, gender, and income level. Younger people, males, and those with low income levels were more willing to adopt carpooling. Compared with males, it was found that females were less interested in adopting carpooling because they attached more importance to convenience, privacy, and trust. Postgraduate students were found to be less likely to adopt carpooling. Finally, a structural model was developed with a moderate coefficient of determination.

Private owners’ propensity to engage in shared parking schemes under uncertainty: comparison of alternate hybrid expected utility-regret-rejoice choice models

ABSTRACT To develop effective strategies for the supply of shared parking and study various theoretical choice models under uncertainty, this paper investigates private parking space owners’ propensity to engage in shared parking schemes using a stated choice experiment that involves an uncertain key attribute. A hybrid expected utility-regret model incorporating rejoice is specified to explore the participation behavior. Equivalent models considering the perception of attribute differences are also estimated. Results show that socio-demographic characteristics, social influence, government’s role, media attention, platform fee, and revenues are all important factors explaining private parking owners’ propensity to engage in shared parking schemes. Besides, the model incorporating all these components, including the emotions of regret and rejoice and the perception of attribute differences, yields the best results. These findings could help promote the policy development toward increasing people’s engagement in shared parking.

A Parking Sharing Network Over Blockchain With Proof-of-Planned-Behavior Consensus Protocol

Parking problem has become a bottle neck of urban traffic management. On one hand, there is no effective way to get timely information of available parking lots. On the other hand, owners of private parking spaces are less willing to share their spare lots. To deal with the parking problem, a new parking sharing network named ParkChain is firstly proposed using blockchain to build a decentralized but trustworthy network. Herein, ParkChain provides a distributed autonomous infrastructure for both vehicle drivers and park granters, which can promote the extensive parking resource sharing and relieve the parking problem. A new blockchain consensus protocol named Proof-of-Planned-Behavior (PoPB) is proposed. It builds the model of the autonomous consensus process based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB), derives a computable threshold for qualification of block data authorizers, and then develops a dynamic authorizer group mechanism for creditability and decentrality considerations. Furthermore, various smart contracts are developed to carry out the parking services transparently. Finally, the prototype has been successfully implemented in a university campus setting to demonstrate the effectiveness of ParkChain.

Complexe Sportive de Meudon – Structural Design and Construction

AbstractThe “Complexe Sportive de Meudon” is a multisport venue in Trivaux – Paris, France, with a rectangular footprint of about 110 meters long by 70 meters wide. It includes an ice rink with 700No. seating places, a fitness centre, squash and padel courts, a climbing wall, and a full size 11‐aside football field, along with public and private parking space. The building's roof is entirely occupied by the football field, which is netted all around with a stainless‐steel cable mesh supported on discrete vertical steel elements, resembling “tuning forks”. A substantial part of the roof structure is supported off 12No. 45m long, varying depth plate girders, weighing 30tonnes each. This communication is focused on this part of the building's structure.

Unlock the Sharing Economy: The Case of the Parking Sector for Recurrent Commuting Trips

This study examines the pricing strategy of a parking sharing platform that rents the daytime-usage rights of private parking spaces from parking owners and sells them to parking users. In an urban area with both shared parking and curbside parking, a choice equilibrium model is proposed to predict the number of shared parking users under any given pricing strategy of the platform. We analytically analyze how the pricing strategy of the platform (price charged on users and rent paid to parking owners or sharers) would affect the parking choice equilibrium and several system efficiency metrics. It is shown that the platform is profitable when some parking owners have a relatively small inconvenience cost from sharing their spaces, but its profit is always negative at minimum social cost. Numerical studies are conducted to illustrate the analytical results and provide further understanding.

Where Am I Parking: Incentive Online Parking-Space Sharing Mechanism With Privacy Protection

Sharing private parking spaces during their idle time periods has shown great potential for addressing urban traffic congestion and illegitimate parking problems in smart cities. In this article, aiming to address the online parking-space sharing issue while ensuring the privacy of customer parking destination locations, we propose a novel destination privacy-preserving online parking sharing (DPOPS) incentive scheme. In particular, the online parking-space sharing problem is formalized as a social welfare maximization problem in a two-sided market, where parking-space providers (PSPs) and customers are regarded as sellers and buyers. Then, novel threshold value-based rules are designed to determine winners, payments, and reimbursement. Finally, winners are matched by solving a mixed-integer nonlinear programming problem, aiming to minimize the distance between customer’s destination and allocated parking space. In addition, the location privacy of the customers’ destinations is protected by the Laplace mechanism. We prove that DPOPS achieves several economically effective properties and approximate differential privacy. We analyze the upper bound of the efficiency loss of our scheme. Extensive evaluation results demonstrate that our scheme can not only achieve good performance regarding social welfare, PSP satisfaction ratio, privacy preservation, and computation overhead but also leads to shorter travel distances for customers comparing to the baseline scheme. <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Note to Practitioners</i> —In this article, we address the online parking-space sharing issue with considering the parking-space providers (PSPs) and customers’ individual utility while preserving the location privacy of customers’ destinations. Most of the previous works focused on designing a centralized mechanism for allocating parking spaces without considering the protection of the customers’ location privacy. In particular, we propose an online parking-space sharing scheme called DPOPS, including a novel threshold value-based winner determination rule and a parking-space allocation rule. The proposed scheme DPOPS allows the PSPs and customers submit their bids and asks according to their own willingness and is able to improve the utilization of private parking spaces during their idle time periods. Moreover, the location privacy of customers’ destinations is protected by the Laplace mechanism. The experiments demonstrate that the proposed approach outperforms the exponential-based scheme in terms of PSP satisfaction ratio and the travel distance for parking-space customer. The proposed scheme is helpful in managing the vacant parking space in a competitive market and can be readily implemented in the real-world online parking-space sharing systems.

Private Parking Space Sharing Intention in China: An Empirical Study Based on the MIMIC Model

The shared parking scheme improves the utilization rate of existing parking resources and contributes to the sustainable development of cities, but many private parking spaces that are not included in the shared parking scheme have a low utilization rate in China. In order to better promote the shared parking scheme, it is necessary to study the intention of the owners of private parking spaces to share their parking spaces. Therefore, this paper used the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) and Benefit-Risk Analysis Model (BRA) as the combined theoretical framework (C-UTAUT-BRA). Hypothesis testing using the Multiple Indicators and Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model was performed using an empirical assessment of the shared parking scheme in China. The results show that (1) the sharing behavioral intention (BI) is directly affected by perceived benefit (PB), perceived risk (PR), social influence (SI), and facilitating condition (FC) and indirectly affected by effort expectancy (EE), of which the total effect of PB is the largest; (2) exogenous variables have an indirect effect on BI through other psychological latent variables; among them, different sociodemographic and economic characteristics have a significant influence on different latent variables, while the built environment has no significant effect on latent variables. This research contributes to theory building in shared parking participation intention and informs business and government leaders on how to promote the shared parking scheme through the action mechanism of influencing factors on BI.

Study on the Intention of Private Parking Space Owners of Different Levels of Cities to Participate in Shared Parking in China

The implementation of shared parking program can effectively increase the utilization rate of existing parking space resources. At present, shared parking program has not been widely practiced in China, and the prerequisite for this prospect to be implemented is whether the private parking space owner group can quickly and widely accept shared parking program. In this study, considering the differences in the economic development, urban planning, and parking pressure in cities of different levels, the theory of planned behavior and the benefit-risk perception model (C-TPB-BRA) are combined as the theoretical framework to explore the intention to share parking space from the perspective of the owners of private parking spaces in cities of different levels. Based on China’s empirical data, structural equation models are built to verify the hypotheses proposed. Our results show that (a) the intention of private parking space owners in different levels of cities to participate in shared parking and the mechanism of action of the psychological factors are different, and not all psychological factors have a direct impact on the intention to share. In first-tier, second-tier, and third-tier cities, Subjective Norm (SN) and Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) indirectly affect Behavior Intention (BI) through Attitude (ATT), Perceived Benefit (PB), and Perceived Risk (PR). In the fourth-tier cities, SN and PBC directly affect BI. Except for BI, other psychological factors influence each other significantly; (b) the psychological factors affecting the intention to supply shared parking spaces in first-tier, second-tier, third-tier, and fourth-tier cities, respectively, are PB &gt; ATT &gt; PR, PB &gt; PR &gt; ATT, PB &gt; PR &gt; ATT, and PB &gt; SN &gt; PBC &gt; ATT &gt; PR. Our research results could help determine the internal factors that affect the intention of parking space suppliers and their mechanisms of action to participate in shared parking, and on that basis, our findings could also help governments and platform operators to promote shared parking development plans.

What role does free-floating car sharing play for changes in car ownership? Evidence from longitudinal survey data and population segments in Copenhagen

Free-floating car sharing (FFCS) offers greater flexibility than station-based car sharing but seems to affect car ownership less. This study looks into characteristics of people who changed or did not change car ownership over time and how an increase or decrease relates to FFCS membership, demographic and attitudinal factors. The study is based on FFCS users (n = 776) and non-users (n = 720) in Copenhagen surveyed two times within a 2.5-year period. Five population segments were created: car dependents, car avoiders, and car limiters who showed constant but different levels of car ownership; car aspirers who increased, and car sellers who decreased car ownership over time. The segments' profiles range from car dependents who show high affective car motives, high perceived mobility necessities and car dependency at the one end, and car avoiders who seem more driven by environmental norms and an instrumental relation to the car, at the other end of the scale. A multinomial regression predicting whether car owners increased or decreased the number of cars in the household during the project period found a positive effect of FFCS membership for decreasing car ownership. However, the effect was no longer significant when adding the intention to reduce car ownership at the time of the first survey. Main factors that remained significant for changed car ownership included a change in household composition, access to a private parking space and the initial number of cars in the household. The paper discusses strategies to increase the contribution of FFCS to car ownership reduction.

Analysis of residential EV energy flexibility potential based on real-world charging reports and smart meter data

The increase in the number of electric vehicles leads to an increased demand for residential charging. While EV electric loads can have a negative impact on the power grid, they also represent a large potential for energy flexibility. This study proposes a methodology to describe charging habits, electricity load profiles, and flexibility potentials of EV charging in apartment buildings. The input data used for the method are generally available for buildings with multiple EV charge points: EV charging reports with individual charging sessions and aggregated smart meter data. The case study is a large housing cooperative in Norway, with a combination of private and shared charge points for the residents. The study compares two charging power assumptions of 3.6 kW and 7.2 kW. The flexibility potential increases with higher charging power. The study reveals a significant potential for residential EV charging flexibility when private parking spaces have EV charge points.