Private Military Companies Research Articles

Normalization of mercenary-like private military and security companies: the need for re-securitization of regulation

Sudden proliferation of contractors in armed conflict and post-conflict situations and severe incidents in the first decade of this century drove to securitization of their regulation. Accomplishments included establishment of international principles and national regulations that improved contracting processes of Western governments and the practices of these contractors. The appearance of Russian-affiliated mercenary-like entities and assertions of their moral equivalence to western private military and security companies (PMSCs) threaten the outcome of the securitization effort. Further, the Russian model of mercenary-like entities may proliferate, propping up totalitarian governments and destabilizing at-risk democracies. We argue that re-securitization is necessary to safeguard the current progress in limiting the internationally accepted governmental use of PMSCs in military operations. This re-securitization must include addressing vocabulary and reviewing existing legal obligations regarding combat provider companies to determine applicability of existing law and make recommendations for good practices to set ordinary regulatory processes back on track.

ЧАСТНЫЕ ВОЕННЫЕ КОМПАНИИ КАК ИНСТРУМЕНТ ОСУЩЕСТВЛЕНИЯ СИЛОВОЙ СТРАТЕГИИ ГИБРИДНЫХ ВОЙН

Aim. To study the role of private military companies as a tool for implementing the power strategy of hybrid wars. Methodology. The analysis of private military companies activities as one of the components of hybrid warfare forms reveals the models and specifics of these organizations participation in armed conflicts. The work uses various general scientific methods, as well as comparative and institutional methods, the method of system analysis. Results. The activities of private military companies are a distinctive feature of military conflicts of the XXI century. These structures are an effective tool for implementing foreign policy, as well as an integral part of a set of measures that is used in the hybrid warfare. Cooperation with various subjects of international relations allows private military companies to act as an independent political actor. Three forms of participation of private military companies in hybrid wars are identified and analyzed: the conduct of military operations by the state with the involvement of PMCs; the hiring of PMCs by the state for operations; the assistance of PMCs in the implementation of military operations conducted by other states. Research implications. The results obtained allow us to expand approaches to the consideration of existing problems, create prerequisites for further study of the role of PMCs in the system of international relations.

O Impacto das Empresas Militares Privadas nas Operações Militares

The aim of this article is to analyse the employment of Private Military Companies (PMC’s) inmilitary operations and UN missions. The PMC’s operate throughout the world, commissioned by governments, intelligence agencies, private industries, warlords, drug cartels and rebel groups to support their militaries and investments. These companies share not only similar corporate aims but also a professional ethos; they are largely run and staffed by ex-military personnel. The existing literature confirms the fact that Africa is the largest theatre of PMC’s operation next to Iraq and Afghanistan (GWATIWA, 2016). This phenomenon continues to raise serious concerns to the national armed forces, as most governments are still reliant on their military forces to protect their borders and vital interests. Traditionally military function has been known to be the sole responsibility of the state; (SINGER, 2008) however, the PMCs are continuing to infringe on that mandate. The international system has undergone a significant change since the United States (US) terrorist attack incident in September 2011, where the PMC’s has become broadly acceptable elements of the Global War on Terrorism (GWT). Therefore, this article will look into the employment of PMCs in different countries and analyse the trend and legalities involved. Finally, a conclusion will be drawn to identify measures to curb or minimise the threats posed by PMCs to state militaries and military operations.

Regulating the Modern Mercenary: the Normative Bias against Mercenarism and Its Impact on Industry Regulation

Throughout the High Middle Ages, as far as the Renaissance, mercenaries were an established, accepted and often lauded profession. However, at some stage in the following two centuries, warfare arrived at a point where the mercenary was practically extinct and the term ‘mercenary’ had become synonymous with betrayal and avarice. With the re-emergence of the mercenary in the mid-twentieth century, a new system of international relations found it necessary to regulate this break-out from the state's monopoly on violence. This article seeks to explore the norm against mercenarism and its links to the regulation of the thriving private military industry. It looks at the biases of that norm and at commonalities between the classical and the modern mercenary, and suggests reasons as to why the norm against mercenarism has failed to stop the tide of private military companies in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.

Legal status of US and UK private military companies: experience for Ukraine

Legal status of US and UK private military companies: experience for Ukraine

Private military and security companies in international law

INTRODUCTION.The article analyses the sources of international law, national legislation of the Russian Federation, as well as that of certain foreign States regulating the operation of private military and security companies (PMSCs) in armed conflict. The article highlights the out-comes of the work of the UN Special Rapporteurs and Working Groups to study the activity of PMSCs and the impact it had on the observance of human rights. The authors further analyze the status of PMSC personnel under international humanitarian law. The article also looks at the positions expressed by the delegations of Member States during the discussion of the 2010 Draft Convention on Private Military and Security Companies (PMSCs) and provides recommendations for developing an appropriate international regulatory framework. The authors also examined State practice of the implementation of the The Montreux Document on Pertinent International Legal Obligations and Good Practices for Statesт Related to Operations of Private Military and Security Companies During Armed Conflict related to the operation of private military and security companies during armed conflict.MATERIALS AND METHODS.The article contains an analysis of the main sources of international law, the documents drafted by the United Nations International Law Commission, special rapporteurs and working groups on the matter, and State practice. It also addresses Russian and foreign legal scholarship. From a methodological perspective, this study relied on the general scientific (analysis, synthesis, systemic approach) and private legal methods of knowledge (formal-legal, comparative legal studies).RESEARCH RESULTS.Based on the study, it is argued that an international treaty should be adopted to regulate the activities of PMSCs, which would establish mechanisms to monitor and hold PMSCs and their employees legally accountable.

Private Military and Security Companies in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Problems and Perspectives

While some of the UN member states refrain from providing peacekeepers due to security reasons, the UN frequently turns to the private security market for support. In turn, private military and security companies (PMSCs) take on risky missions and fill in the procurement gaps. It is common practice to criticize PMSCs for not having a clear international legal status, operating in the “grey” area of the law and not being accountable for their actions. Furthermore, the UN often equates PMSCs to mercenaries of the past and calls for strict regulation and surveillance of their activities. This practice has remained unchanged since the 1992 reforms, and the UN has done nothing to reduce the involvement of PMSCs in peacekeeping missions. On the contrary, it has, under pressure from lobbyists for the private security industry, actually increased security expenditures for PMSCs by unprecedented amounts. The UN’s position as a unique universal intergovernmental organization exempts it from a great deal of transparency, accountability and reform. While the private security industry includes various PMSCs that compete for contracts in conflict zones and post-conflict areas, the UN does not have any kind of competitor in peacekeeping procedures. The UN criticizes PMSCs for their blatant human rights violations and disregard of international law, yet continues to contract them for its peacekeeping missions. This paper examines the problem of involving PMSCs in UN peacekeeping operations. It aims to answer the following main questions: How do PMSCs, as partners of the UN in the peacekeeping process, contribute to the protection of human rights, which is one of the organization’s basic declared principles? Can PMSCs become a recognized instrument within the UN system? Would UN peacekeeping eff orts improve as a result of hiring PMSCs?

Game of Proxies – Towards a new model of warfare: Experiences from the CAR, Libya, Mali, Syria, and Ukraine

The objective of the study is to carry out a meaningful comparison that demonstrates the similarities and differences of various conflict theatres where proxy forces were employed. The analyses of the discussed cases focused on different aspects of the conflict and nature of the proxy use. The analyses presented on the following pages were conducted on the basis of the literature on the subject, governmental research and reports, and supporting sources reporting recent developments that complemented academic sources. Various non-state actors such as ethnic militias, paramilitary units, and private military companies have become more and more visible on contemporary battlegrounds. Modern states employ those actors to further their objectives, as this limits their own political and financial costs. This increasingly visible phenomenon points to an emerging new model of warfare where state actors are relying ever more on proxies of various character and nature. It is highly likely that any future conflict will be characterised by a proxy-based model of warfare, which will consist of a limited footprint made by regular forces (or none at all) and, consequently, the extended use of proxies supported by special forces. Because such an approach is less costly, proxies will be more often employed by low-budget states, previously reluctant to carry out such costly military endeavours. Denying the actions and affiliations of these proxies will inevitably follow and, in turn, a lack of political accountability and responsibility for the conflict’s outcome.

NON-STATE ACTOR: DEFINING PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES

This article outlines several categories of Private Military Companies(PMCs) to distinguish between the different military services these organisations provide. In doing so, the article argues that an appropriate category is needed to understand the military operations these companies undertake. The article suggests that the PMCs can be divided into four categories: the Combat Offensive PMC, the Combat Defensive PMC, the Non-Combat Offensive PMC, and finally the Non-Combat Defensive PMC

СВІТОВИЙ ДОСВІД СТВОРЕННЯ ТА РОЗВИТКУ ПРИВАТНИХ ВІЙСЬКОВИХ КОМПАНІЙ ЯК ІНСТРУМЕНТА РЕАЛІЗАЦІЇ НАЦІОНАЛЬНИХ ІНТЕРЕСІВ

У статті коротко надаються історичні факти використання приватних військових компаній у світі: за часів Риму і Карфагену; часів занепаду Римської імперії; в епоху Середньовіччя; укладання Вестфальського миру; Великої Французської революції; в ХІХ столітті; в період 1940-1970 років ХХ століття. Визначаються передумови виникнення і розвитку приватних військових компаній у світі в ХХстолітті. Описується досвід США щодо нормативно – правового регулювання діяльності приватних військових компаній. Характеризуються фактори, які посилили активність розвитку приватно – військових компаній. Окреслюється перелік функцій, які можуть виконувати приватні військові компанії, а саме: воєнізована охорона людей і об’єктів, зокрема посольств або нафтопроводів; охорона гуманітарних місій; участь у миротворчих цілях, в т.ч., під егідою ООН; розмінування; розвідувальна діяльність і оцінка ситуації безпеки в регіоні; технічне обслуговування та використання бойових комплексів і техніки; боротьба з піратством; евакуація населення з територій, де точаться збройні конфлікти; професійна підготовка сил місцевої поліції або військових; здійснення функцій поліції там, де не працюють правоохоронні органи; утримання під вартою і конвоювання затриманих або ув’язнених; підготовка цивільних осіб до роботи в надзвичайній обстановці; повноцінну участь в бойових операціях – спільно з кадровими частинами або окремо. Наголошується на широкому спектрі використання приватних військових компаній у різних регіонах світу. Аналізується правова база діяльності приватних військових компаній у США, Південно – Африканській республіці, Швейцарії, Китаї. Надається перелік іноземних приватних військових компаній, які приймають найбільш активну участь сьогодні в міжнародних конфліктах. Висвітлюються факти участі Російської Федерації у конфліктах, в яких їй доводиться активно використовувати приватні військові компанії.

Activities of Multinational Military Companies in the Post-Soviet Space

This article considers the main directions of the activities of Western private military companies (PMCs) in the post-Soviet space. The end of the USSR and the Warsaw Pact led to the creation of an extensive arms market. The collapse of the Soviet army and the prolonged economic crisis frustrated a large number of former military personnel and made them ready to offer their professional skills to almost any solvent customer. The decay of the bipolar system of international relations has created vast zones of instability, mostly localized in Africa, the Balkans, and in the Middle East. The military security function no longer prevails in the largest Western PMCs. These corporations have significantly diversified their activities, thoughtfully excluded the word “military” from their names, and today provide customers with a wide range of services from cargo transportation and consulting to construction and geological exploration. Unlike Iraq and Afghanistan, the post-Soviet space does not provide Western PMCs with any broad field for participation in peacekeeping and counter-terrorism operations. Their contribution to the combat training of the armed forces of Georgia, Ukraine and Azerbaijan was limited to only a few episodes. However, the gradual penetration of Chinese military companies into the Central Asian region has become a fundamentally new phenomenon.

ПЕРСПЕКТИВИ СТВОРЕННЯ ТА РОЗВИТКУ ПРИВАТНИХ ВІЙСЬКОВИХ КОМПАНІЙ В УКРАЇНІ

У статті висвітлюється науковий дискурс щодо дефініції «приватна воєнна компанія» та надається авторське визначення цьому поняттю як комерційної організації, яка покликана надавати спеціалізовані послуги у сфері оборони, захисту, як правило, з участю у військових конфліктах, що поєднуються з розвідувальною діяльністю, стратегічним плануванням, логістикою і консультуванням. Окреслюються основні ознаки приватної воєнної компанії: воодіння статусом приватної комерційної установи, основною метою якої є отримання прибутку; закріплення статусом напрямків діяльності в сфері надання воєнних послуг; об’єктність; надання воєнних послуг в основному за межами своїх країн. Виділяється проблема нормативно – правового забезпечення діяльності приватних військових компаній в Україні, а саме відсутність у вітчизняному законодавстві положення, яке безпосередньо регулювало б діяльність приватної військової компанії як юридичної особи. Аналізується стан та перспективи розвитку приватних військових компаній в Україні. Характеризується зміст обговорення питання легалізації приватних військових компаній. Визначаються особливості функціонування приватних військових компаній в Україні, які повинні бути враховані при прийнятті закону про легалізацію в Україні діяльності приватних військових компаній, а саме: необхідність прописати норми і правові рамки виконання приватною військовою компанією тієї чи іншої функції; визначити перелік функцій, які держава може передавати для виконання приватним військовим компаніям. Розглядаються перспективи подальшого розвитку приватних військових компаній в Україні.

The Evolution of Peacekeeping Operations : Interview with Professor Alexander I. Nikitin

Professor Dr. Alexander I. Nikitin is a leading Russian IR scholar, an expert on problems of international security, international conflicts, peacekeeping operations, activities of international organizations. Professor of the Political Sciences Department at MGIMO University, Director of the MGIMO Center for Euro-Atlantic Security of the Institute for International Studies, Director of the Center for Political and International Studies, Professor of the State Management Department of the Lomonosov Moscow State University, Professor of the Public Policy Department of the Research University - Higher School of Economics, President Emeritus of the Russian Political Science Association (RPSA) and Chairman of the RPSA International Cooperation Council. Subject area: International Security, Peacekeeping, Conflict Resolution, International Relations, NATO Policy and Russia - NATO Relations, International Organizations (UN, OSCE, NATO, CSTO, SCO), Nuclear Policy and Non-Proliferation, Regulation of Private Military and Security Companies, Civil-Military Relations. Born in 1958, graduated from the Department of Philosophy of Moscow State University in 1979. PhD (International Relations) in 1983 and 2000. Research work for 10 years (1979-1989) in the USA and Canada Studies Institute (Senior Research Fellow, Head of Section). From 1989 to the present day Dr. Nikitin has been teaching in the Moscow State Institute of International Relations (from 1996 to the present day - Professor of the Department of Political Sciences). From 2004 to the present day - Director of the Center for Euro-Atlantic Security of the Institute for International Studies at the Moscow State Institute of International Relations. Center specializes in research in the spheres of international security and international relations. In his interview Professor Dr. Alexander I. Nikitin describes the current state of international peacekeeping, current trends and characteristics of conflicts and their impact on international relations. Professor Nikitin assesses Russias participation in peacekeeping operations within the UN and other formats of international cooperation.

Private Military Companies in the Foreign and Security Policy of the Russian Federation in 2014–2019

Countries are changing their military measures and strategies, thus they increasingly recruit private military and security companies or private military companies to pursue their interests instead of their regular forces. The aim of the research article is to reveal the motives and features of the use of private military companies in Russia’s foreign and security policy of 2014–2019. The novelty and relevance of the research object have prompted the use of the microtheory, i.e., the principal-agent theory, the application of which in political sciences has started just recently. It provides the basis for the assessment of the motives and features which led to recruitment of private military companies for the purposes of Russia’s foreign and security policy. The qualitative research method was selected in order to achieve this aim: the case analysis method was applied for the purpose of selection of the cases, i.e., regions: Syria, North-East and Central Africa, Ukraine, and Venezuela, focussing on the analysis of the factors which led to Russia’s decision to recruit private military companies instead of the regular forces. Based on the analysis of the motives for using private military companies and conventional forces, we may claim that they are similar, because the use of both military structures enables achieving somewhat the same interests. Nevertheless, it was noted that, based on the specifics of the forces and the chart encompassing the variety of social deviations, private military and security companies are more similar to the regular forces. Nevertheless, both types of private companies help Russia avoid direct liability for various violations of the law. The factors explained in the microtheory are adjusted, expanded, and correlated by taking into account the case of Russia analysed within the course of the research. The analysis of the case of Russia also has shown that the Kremlin faced only one problem explained by the principal-agent theory, i.e., agency slack. The analysis has shown that not all regions located further away from Russia were useful in terms of finances, but all of them gave Russia advantage over the USA in respect of strategy.

The Establishment and Regulation of the Commercial Security Industry in Kenya and its Constitutionality

The commercial security industry's effective establishment and regulation have been overlooked in many states, including Kenya. The increase of Commercial security firms' involvement in national and transnational business resulted in the United Nations drafting the Convention on the Regulation, Oversight, and Monitoring of Private Military and Security Companies. This study examines the Commercial Security Industry in Kenya in terms of establishment and regulation, outlining the industry's major issues and challenges. The aim was to demonstrate that laws and practices relating to registration and regulation of the Commercial Security Industry in Kenya are loosely created, weak, and shaky. And up to date, the commercial security industry in Kenya is operating in contravention of the Constitution.

Russia’s use of its private military companies

Russian-speaking soldiers bearing no insignia have appeared in various global conflicts and as security consultants in weak states since the middle of the last decade. These soldiers, hired and deployed by private military companies (PMCs), serve the interests of the Russian government as proxies and those of the Russian oligarchs seeking to profit from PMC missions. Russia may rely on private soldiers even more heavily should its relations with the United States continue to deteriorate, as seems likely.

Privačios kariuomenės: teisinė aklavietė

War mercenaries can be traced back to the ancient era and it still survives to this day, though its form and means of use have significantly changed in the second part of the 20th century in response to changes in international law. Numerous countries nowadays are employing these modern mercenaries to replace their soldiers in many military roles. Due to the rapid spread of private military companies (PMC) and the number of contracts granted to them every year, a major concern has been raised, and until this day there are no clear international law documents that regulate the activities and define the legal status of these military contractors. Because of this, the question of PMC’s is seemingly in a grey zone of law. The main aim of this paper is to examine the trends of PMC’s, and the existing efforts to properly regulate them both on international and national levels.

Private Military Companies in the Russian Federation Foreign and Security Policies in 2014–2019

The aim of the scientific article is to reveal motives and features of using private military companies in Russian Federation foreign and security policy in 2014-2019. In order to do so, qualitative research method is applied, using case analysis method. From the analysis of the motives for the use of private military companies and conventional forces, it can be said that they are similar, as the use of both military structures allows to achieve more or less the same interests. However, it was observed that in terms of the specifics of the forces and the diversity scheme of social deviations, private military and security companies are more similar to regular forces. Nevertheless, both types of private companies help Russia avoid direct liability for various violations of the law. Considering the case of Russia analyzed in the study, the factors explained in the microtheory are adjusted, supplemented and interrelated. The analysis found that not all regions that are far from Russia are financially beneficial, but strategically, all give Russia an advantage over the United States. This work is beneficial for researchers doing study cases on Russian Federation foreign and security policy. Due to the novelty and relevance of the research object, a new microtheory in political science has been applied. Research is carried out using principal-agent theory which was only used analyzing US case.

Revisiting the Legal Framework for Private Military and Security Contractors: Maritime Perspective

The paper aims to analyse legal lacunas and suggest possible solutions for the acts and wrongdoings of Private Military and Security Companies within the lens of maritime activities. The paper has been divided into three parts. Part I deals with the necessity and role of Private Military and Security Companies in the present times. Part II discusses the legal status of Private Military and Security Companies and ways of ensuring responsibility for their acts. Part III examines the legal framework for the acts of Private Maritime Security Companies. An assessment of the rules of international humanitarian law (IHL), state responsibility, applicability of the Montreux document and efforts such as GUARDCON have been discussed to highlight the inadequacy of the laws on Private Maritime Security Companies. There has been an upsurge in the employment of Private Maritime Security Companies since 2008 to cope with a myriad of problems at sea including piracy and robbery. However, an umbrella of rules including employment procedures, agreements, training techniques, responsibility in peacetime as well as in times of conflict and the guidelines of IHL must be restructured or enhanced in order to be made applicable to Private Maritime Security Companies.

Understanding public blame attributions when private contractors are responsible for civilian casualties

When the actions of private military contractors result in civilian casualties during war, who do citizens blame? This study argues blame attributions can be shaped by people’s inferences about the motivation of actors operating on behalf of the government. Using national survey data, this study randomizes whether casualties are the result of state military forces or private military forces contracted by the government. The results show that inferences about the motivation of state military forces insulate both military personnel and public officials from blame, while inferences about the motivation of private contractors disperse blame onto contractor personnel and the government. The results provide new theoretical insight into how citizens evaluate government performance and the potential drawbacks of utilizing private contractors to achieve public policy objectives.