Private Military Companies Research Articles

Perceptions of Russia’s ‘return’ to Africa: Views from West Africa

ABSTRACT The article focuses on the perception of Russia’s ‘return’ to Africa through an analysis of field research data from three African states: Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso, gathered in late 2021. In this article, the authors argue that the Russian ‘return’ to Africa, which is primarily seen in the provision of security services through the presence of Russian private military companies (PMCs), is perceived positively in West Africa. An important role is played in these perceptions by the Soviet legacy on the continent, which is remembered positively among Africans. Perceptions among the youths surveyed appear significantly influenced by the crisis in relations between West African countries and France, as well as the experience of Russian involvement in the field of securitisation since 2014. The net effect is that Russian engagement in West Africa, and specifically by PMCs, is welcome.

The Role of Chinese Private Military Companies in the Implementation of One Belt One Road Initiative

The study used historical and geopolitical approaches to examine the dialectical relationship of the activities of private military companies and security firms in China in implementing global economic projects of the People’s Republic of China. We identified the features of the formation and evolution of private military companies in China. The study analyzed the role of private military companies in the implementation of the «One Belt, One Road» initiative. It is important to note that the Chinese leadership is well aware of the importance of private military companies in the implementation of the country’s economic projects and acts in this direction consistently, while maintaining state control over their activities. Currently, China’s private military firms play an important role not only in the implementation of economic projects of the state, but also in protecting the interests of business and citizens of the People’s Republic of China.

Potential Negative Externalities of Private Military Entrepreneurs from an Economic Perspective

ABSTRACT Private military companies (PMC) can have considerable advantages for the customer on the one hand, but on the other hand can come with great dangers. Based on the theory of externalities, an attempt is made to illuminate this situation and to analyze the negative externalities associated with it. By using an instrumental case study method we can identify two potential negative technological externalities of hiring PMCs which should be internalized. These two are the violation of national law and international humanitarian law in the theater of operation, and the lack of control of the executive by the legislative branch in the exporting state. Based on this, we present and discuss options to eliminate these negative technological externalities. It can be shown that the preferable set of measures includes instruments to create transparency, and command-and-control regulations on the individual state’s level. While the second effect can easily be solved with domestic instruments, a supranational organization is needed to solve the first effect.

Russian Private Military and Ukraine: Hybrid Surrogate Warfare and Russian State Policy by Other Means

This article investigates the Russian government’s reliance on commercial soldiers in the hybrid war efforts against Ukraine until the invasion in February 2022. Russian private military companies (PMCs), such as RUSCORP and the Wagner group, have already been active in Syria and Africa over the last years, signalling the resurgence of Russian machinations on the world stage. They also played a key part in the annexation of Crimea in 2014, as well as the struggles on Ukraine’s Eastern border areas around Luhansk and Donbas. The article shows that PMCs have become an integral part of the Kremlin’s approach to foreign policy. Unlike Western PMCs, which can arguably augment their ability to provide effective public security, Russian PMCs are used to construct insecurities to the point of fighting hybrid surrogate wars. While they fulfil the same outcome for the Russian state to be strengthened through the public-private security arrangements, their function is radically different: (1) providing deniability without the deployment of Russian troops, (2) providing military ambiguity and (3) thus, furthering the Kremlin’s foreign policy objectives. The significance of the deployment of these PMCs is that they are an extension of the Russian security apparatus, closely linked to the FSB, GRU and SVR, and with similar command and control structures, staffed by former members of the Russian security services.

The Afghanistan War’s Legacy: The Reimagining of the Outsourcing of War and Security

The two decades of war in Afghanistan left a mark on the American armed forces and redefined the American ways of war-making. One of this war’s legacies is the reimagining of the role of private military and security contractors in contemporary warfare. Due to the massive involvement of the private sector in the American war machine, this industry transformed from a marginal participant into a central partner. The privatization of military and security functions became a norm, an integral part of security architecture and military operation. In this study, I provide a brief review of this development and its implications.

Security Logics of Africa’s Divided Position on Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine

This article examines African states’ security interests concerning Russia in order to explain those states’ voting behaviour on a UN resolution condemning the invasion of Ukraine. African states do not form a bloc ready to support action taken by ‘the West’. Many African states are themselves authoritarian and harbour longstanding suspicion of European and North American powers. Russia has also built close security relations with many African governments as an arms supplier, provider of military assistance, and source of private military companies. Overall, African states may prefer to maintain relations with both Russia and its opponents rather than choosing between rival blocs.

Liability of the Private Military Companies for Violations of International Humanitarian Law

In the wake of the privatization of war, new international players known as private military companies have been given the opportunity to actively engage in many armed conflicts throughout the world. They provide a variety of services such as combat services, logistical support, operational support, intelligence, border monitoring, and providing security guards in exchange for monetary compensation. During armed conflicts workers of these military companies can violate international law, including provisions of international humanitarian law. Under the international humanitarian law, the individual criminal responsibility exists to be applied on the employees of these firms, but the international legal framework is unable to identify the liability of these private military companies. Especially, the idea of criminal corporate liability for these companies is nonexistent. This research paper proposes that the idea of corporate criminal responsibility should be introduced at the state level, with the goal of holding Private Military Companies accountable for breaches of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Laws. In addition, it is also argued that the special regulations are required to govern private military companies.

Private Military and Security Companies (PMSCs) in the Modern International Processes

The period of rapid growth and development of the phenomenon, that is presently characterized as private military and security companies (PMSCs), coincided with the two processes of modern history of international relations: the end of the Cold War and the beginning of the U.S. Global War on Terror (GWOT) in Afghanistan. At the same time state attitude towards violence and transformation of warfare has been changing as well. Two diff erent approaches to the history of the private security market’ rise unveil the fact, that, in one way or another, the originators of the private security services were associated with the defense industry and armed forces. Non-state security actors look back on a history, that stretches to the middle and the second half of the 20th century – the period of national liberation movements across the world. Meanwhile, the 90-s of the 20th century marked the fast growth in the number of PMSCs and in the development and enlargement of the private security services’ market. Its growth is ongoing to date with gaining more new states that are interested in utilizing its capacity as an instrument of politics. Against the backdrop of the world political processes the private security market experienced technological growth and enhancement. Together with that, both the normative regulation and the approaches of the international community to the phenomenon of private military and security companies have been evolving and changing. Despite its functionality, fl exibility and technological advantages, the market of private security can challenge human rights as well as bare responsibility for the facts of corruption and improper fulfi llment of contractual obligations. Still the episodes of revealed grieve violations rarely reach courts, with infrequent cases of sentencing the perpetrators to punishment. These and other problems occurring in the private security industry require close attention by the states and international community, which has been making eff orts for elaboration of the applicable normative mechanisms to regulate private military and security activity for more than fi fteen years.

Victories and Losses of the USA and Russia in Asymmetric Conflicts at 21st Century

The article discusses the features of armed confl icts at the beginning of the 21st century through the prism of the theory of asymmetric confl ict. Within the framework of the theory, basic and accompanying asymmetries are distinguished, which determine the reasons for the political, rather than military, defeat of developed countries in wars against relatively weak opponents. At the beginning of the 21st century most of the armed confl icts have pronounced signs of multiple asymmetries that aff ect the course and outcome of confl icts. On the basis of the theory, several important aspects can be distinguished that should be taken into account by the military and politicians when planning and conducting military operations. Among them: the legitimacy of military operations from the point of view of international law, neutralization of anti-war sentiments, minimization of losses of military personnel, ensuring the safety of the population in the war zone. Foreign analytics is characterized by a focus on the reasons for the failures of the United States and other Western states in military operations in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, and Syria. Among the reasons for the failures are a lack of understanding of the culture and characteristics of the countries where hostilities are conducted, the regime of occupation, and attempts at nation-building. Some foreign experts note that the Russian Federation is much more successful in participating in asymmetric confl icts of the 21st century. Among Russian military experts, there is a noticeable interest in developing an “asymmetric war” strategy in the framework of the geopolitical confrontation with the countries of the West. The tendency to develop non-contact methods of warfare and the involvement of private military companies to neutralize anti-war sentiments and minimize losses of military personnel has a universal character. At the same time, the problem of non-selectivity of such methods of warfare and their compliance with international law is becoming more and more acute. The theory of asymmetric confl ict is a theory of international relations, which main assumptions are are useful for politicians and the military to take into account in the process of deciding on the start of hostilities and the possibility of achieving political goals by military means, and not just for fi nding victorious strategies in asymmetric confl icts.

Blood money: Stories of an ex-Recce’s missions as a private military contractor in Iraq

Blood money: Stories of an ex-Recce’s missions as a private military contractor in Iraq

RUS GÖNÜLLÜ SAVAŞÇILAR VE RUSYA’DA ÖZEL ASKERİ ŞİRKETLERİN ORTAYA ÇIKIŞI

Antik Çağ’da Mısırlılardan başlayarak, yakın döneme kadar hemen her imparatorluk yabancı askeri unsurları kendi adına savaştırma yoluna gitmiştir. Kâğıt üzerinde ticaret işletmesi olarak gözüken ama sıklıkla istihbarat ve gizli askeri operasyonlarda kullanılan bu şirketler özellikle 2003 yılında Irak’ın ABD tarafından işgali ve sonrasında sıklıkla gündeme geldikleri için daha fazla bilinir ve tanınır hale gelmiştir. Ordudan emekli edilen veya ettirilen profesyonellerden oluşturulan özel askeri şirket personeli düzenli ordu birliklerinin tabi olduğu kurallara bağlı kalmadan çalıştırılmıştır. Ulusal güvenlik ve çıkarlarını gerçekleştirmek için benzer askeri şirketleri Rusya’da kullanmaya çalışmıştır. Ancak bu noktada Rusya Federasyonu Anayasası ve kanunlarından kaynaklanan bazı kısıtlamalar ortaya çıkmıştır. Rus Anayasası ve Rus Ceza Kanunu paralı askerlik ve özel asker şirketlerin kurulmasına izin vermemiş ve bu türden yapılanmaları ve faaliyetleri kanundışı olarak nitelendirmiştir. Gerek bu nokta gerekse de uluslararası güvenlik şirketleri piyasasına gerek ekonomik sorunlar gerekse de silahlı kuvvetlerinden gelen muhalefet sebebiyle geç kalan Rusya Federasyonu şirketleri pazardan Batılı şirketler kadar pay alamamıştır. Bu çalışmada Rusya’nın olaylara doğrudan müdahil olamadığı durumlarda kullanıldığı gönüllü savaşçı uygulaması ve daha sonra Wagner Grup’la özdeşleşen özel askeri şirketler sistemi kurma girişimlerinin ilk dönemi, 1999-2013 yılları arasındaki dönem açıklayıcı ve kronolojik bir yöntemle açıklanmaktadır.

Mercenaries and private military corporations in ancient and early medieval South Asia

ABSTRACT In India, from the time of emergence of empires in circa 300 BCE till the rise of British power in eighteenth century, military mercenaries and private military companies dominated the politico-military landscape. Premodern India had both secular (military guilds) and religious (based on temples and akharas) military corporations. The mercenaries were mostly marginal peasants and demobilised soldiers. They were hired through the agency of their clan leaders, tribal chieftains or the zamindars (large landlords) in whose villages they resided. Historians argue that the presence of the mercenaries and extra state military corporations prevented the rise of strong states in premodern India. In this paper, based mostly on indigenous sources, I argue that the military mercenaries and the private military corporations of pre-British India were at the forefront of technological development. The mercenaries were the channel through which tools, techniques, and ideas of warfare were transferred. The rulers relied on the mercenaries because of their military skills and in the long run they also proved to be cheaper compared to the cost of maintaining permanently a large regular army.

Private Military and Security Companies and Gendered Human Rights Challenges: Oversight or Blatant Disregard?

It is well documented that the private military and security industry has the capacity to do great gendered harms to both those it encounters and those it employs.1 Significantly, it is also a sector where a variety of human rights-based approaches, instruments and mechanisms have emerged beyond the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGPs).2 The International Code of Conduct for Private Security Providers (ICoC) addresses gender, and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), and explicitly requires private military and security companies (PMSCs) to integrate a gender perspective in their practices.3 Through an examination of publicly available documents and policies required for PMSCs certified as complying with the ICoC, this piece evaluates whether PMSCs do in fact integrate a gender perspective into their human rights policies and grievance procedures (see Table 1).4 Our study of certified PMSCs demonstrates that despite increased attention to the potential for negative gender impacts in the sector, companies have not developed gender-responsive policies and procedures. It can be said, therefore, that gender is not addressed in any meaningful way by PMSCs. More specifically, we conclude that PMSCs have not yet shown the required holistic understanding of gendered impacts and barriers that is required to respect human rights, and that further efforts are needed in the sector.

Political ecology of security: tackling the illegal wildlife trade

This article sets out a political ecology approach to thinking about security. It draws together conceptual debates from IR, green criminology and political ecology in order to develop new ways of thinking about and analyzing the political ecologies of security. To date political ecologists have focused on conflicts and struggles, but have not fully engaged with thinking about security. In this article we examine the ways that responses to the illegal wildlife trade have encouraged and supported greater integration between conservation and security. We use the example of the deployment of private military companies for anti poaching training and operations to tease out the key features of a political ecology approach to security; this focuses on excavating the relations between capital, nature and security, being attentive to the dynamics of race and gender, and taking an ethically engaged positionality to highlight the voices of marginalized communities. In so doing, the purpose of this article is to act as a starting point for developing a much clearer and stronger conceptual basis for political ecologists to engage with questions of security.

New Actor of Conflict Zones Private Military Companies

Soğuk Savaş’ın bitmesini takiben özelleşmenin dünyada her alanda kendini göstermesi; askeri, siyasi ve ekonomik alana da sıçramıştır. Bu durum aynı zamanda askeri güçlerin arz ve taleplerinde de önemli değişikliklere sebep olmuştur. Gelişen ve değişen bu yeni atmosfer ise özel askeri şirketleri çatışma bölgelerinin belirgin aktörü haline getirmiştir. Uluslararası hukuk alanında da oldukça yeni olan özel askeri şirketlerin kullanımının yaygınlaşması, bir yandan devletlerin kuvvet kullanma tekelini yitirdiğine ilişkin bir yaklaşımın gelişmesine neden olurken diğer yandan uluslararası hukuk bakımından birtakım belirsizlikler meydana getirmiştir. Bu çalışmada askerliğin özelleştirilmesinin tarihsel süreci, özel askeri şirketlerin doğumundan bugüne kadar olan gelişimi, ulusal ve uluslararası etkileri ile bu alanda yapılan/yapılması gereken hukuki düzenlemeler ele alınacaktır.

History of Mercenarism and the Framework for Operation of the U.S. Private Military Contractors: New Revelations for China

After the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the USSR, the security functions of the country, which were traditionally considered as those that belonged to the state, are increasingly being transferred to the private sector. Private military contractors (PMCs) are rapidly developing and playing an increasingly important role in local wars and regional conflicts around the world. In this article, the author tried to reflect on two main topics: what were the origins and evolution of mercenarism and what activities do American PMCs conduct? To answer these questions, a deep study of the history of mercenarism and the functioning of US PMCs was carried out. As a result of research, we see that the corporate culture of US PMCs with the support of the government should be underestimated, although they still experience many difficulties in their development. Their experience needs to be studied and applied to solve many problems, in particular, to ensure the safety of the Chinese nationals and Chinese companies operating abroad.

In the Kill Zone: Surviving as a private military contractor in Iraq

In the Kill Zone: Surviving as a private military contractor in Iraq

Africa in the 21st Century: New Insights into the Problem of Security

A sharp increase in geopolitical tensions following the start of a special military operation in Ukraine and the introduction of unprecedented Western sanctions against Russia has reverberated around the planet, and Africa is no exception in this regard. Under the circumstances, old threats to African countries have intensified and new ones have emerged, shaped by a complex interplay of local and international political and economic factors. If left unchecked, these threats may undermine Africa’s economic progress and have a knock-on effect on the continental integration agenda. Suitably, scholarly interest in African security has been and will keep growing as the interplay becomes more complicated. The Centre for Sociological and Political Sciences Studies of the Institute for African Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences held the international conference “Between Promise and Peril: African Security in the 21st Century”. The scope of the conference covered such security-related topics in the African context as peacekeeping and counter-insurgency, private military companies and hybrid warfare, nuclear terrorism and peaceful atom, state fragility and neo-patrimonialism. A grave peril is that Africa once again becomes a proxy battlefield for conflicts between great powers. Participants paid special attention to the dynamics between local and foreign factors of destabilization in African countries. A particular focus of presenters was also made on the dilemma of state-building in Africa and its impact on African security. Most participants agreed that Africa’s security is no longer a regional issue but a global one as the geopolitical and geoeconomic significance of the continent is increasing steadily.

Rosyjskie prywatne firmy wojskowe i ich rola w polityce wewnętrznej i zagranicznej

Russia’s use of private military companies has strengthened in recent years, reflecting lessons learned from past actions, an expansive mindset and a desire for economic, geopolitical and military benefits. Military operations in Ukraine, starting from 2014, were one of the first tests for PMC. Since then, the Russians have perfected their model of operation. Even though the activities of private contractors are illegal under the Russian Constitution, they play an important role in pursuing Russian interests, mainly abroad. They weaken US influence and support Russia’s geopolitical, military and economic interests. They are present in as many as 30 countries on four continents. The purpose of this article is to define the role of Russian private military companies in the internal and external policy of the Russian Federation.

Британское присутствие в Индийском океане: перспективы расширения

The article explores the possibility of strengthening and expanding the British political and military presence in the Indian Ocean, its probable goals, objectives, methods and means there. The main purpose of the study is to consider the possibility activating the British military policy in this area, to assess the importance of the Indian Ocean region for London, the prospect of direct expansion of the military presence, the role of British private military companies and alternative methods of influence. The paper analyzes current trends and problems in the foreign and security policy of the United Kingdom. The relevance of the study is due to the change in the British architecture of foreign policy and the perception of its place in international relations. Using system and comparative analysis methods of research, the author concludes the growing probability of expanding the British military presence in the Indian Ocean in the medium and long term. Modern British navy firearms status can allow to increase the intensity of the British military presence in the Indian Ocean. Also, this circumstance may activate Great Britain’s foreign policy in the Indo-Pacific region. It should be noted that the strengthening of the British fleet can be called a marker of the desire of the United Kingdom to become a global player in the international arena. To achieve this goal, almost all possible means of strengthening the capabilities of the UK’s hard power are used: the navy, private military companies, as well as new military alliances such as AUKUS. The work on intensifying the influence in the Indo-Pacific region is a part of the British foreign policy on global strengthening, and should be considered in the context of other regions: Ukraine, Turkey and Northern Europe. Nevertheless, at the moment, the results of such activities cannot be called completely predictable.