Primary Outcrops Research Articles

Provenance analysis of red sandstone ground stone tools from the tell site of Hódmezővásárhely-Gorzsa (SE Hungary)

Hódmezővásárhely–Gorzsa is a multi-period tell settlement in South Hungary in the centre of the Great Hungarian Plain, about 15 km southwest of the city of Hódmezővásárhely. The thickest section of the settlement belongs to the Late Neolithic Tisza Culture period. In total, 1061 macrolithic artefacts were unearthed, a quarter of which was polished, and three quarter of which were ground stone tools. Half of the ground stones were made of different types of sandstone, including (1) red-, (2) grey micaceous-, (3) calcareous-, (4) white meta sandstones, and (5) other sandstones and metasandstones were identified. The red sandstones are further categorised into four subgroups based on optical microscopy. This examination is the first systematic multi-analytical investigation (i.e. optical microscopy, whole-rock geochemistry and mineral chemistry), carried out on these ground stone tool types. The goal is to identify and precisely locate the raw material types, in which heavy minerals and the tourmaline mineral chemistry play the key role. To determine the provenance of each of these subgroups, samples were collected from seven geological localities (i.e. primary outcrops and secondary presences, such as river drainages or terraces) for a comparative study. Based on our results, the alluvium of the Maros River can be considered as a possible source for the ‘Red – 3’ type of Gorzsa, while the results for the rest red sandstone types (‘Red – 1’, ‘Red − 2’ and ‘Red – 4’) are inconclusive in terms of provenance.

Geological and geochemical characterization of the Kelbadjar (Kechaldag) obsidian source in Azerbaijan, Lesser Caucasus

In this paper, the geological and geochemical characterizations of the Kechaldag (a.k.a. Kelbadzhar and Kelbadjar) obsidian source in southwestern Azerbaijan are presented. Samples were collected from primary outcrops, and analyzed by XRF at the University of Missouri Research Reactor. The contents of 12 elements were measured. This allowed us to obtain for the first time a comprehensive geochemical signature of the Kechaldag obsidian source that was less known previously. On the Rb. vs. Sr bivariate plot, Kechaldag is clearly separated from the neighboring Syunik group and other sources of the Lesser Caucasus. The data generated by us can be used for in-depth study of obsidian exploitation in the Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age of the Lesser Caucasus and neighboring regions.

An instance of Neanderthal mobility dynamics: a lithological approach to the flint assemblage from stratigraphic unit viii of El Salt rockshelter (Alcoi, eastern Iberia)

The relationship between hunter-gatherer group mobility and lithic raw material procurement strategies is central to the study of Neanderthal productive behaviours. In this framework, determination of flint procurement sources through lithological analysis is key to infer Neanderthal group mobility patterns. El Salt rockshelter (Alcoi, Alacant, eastern Iberia) features different nearby flint sources, including primary outcrops and secondary deposits containing flint. In this study, we sourced the stratigraphic unit viii archaeological flint assemblage based on identification of geogenic and postgenetic lithological traits. Our results indicate that flint procurement at El Salt during the stratigraphic unit viii Neanderthal occupations was mainly linked to Pleistocene secondary deposits along the upper and middle courses of Serpis river. The artefacts were made predominantly on alluvially reworked nodules of different flint types. Connecting these procurement areas with their corresponding knapping products reveals a direct relationship between flint-source distance and degree of technical intervention, and defines a hypothetically unidirectional series of rivershore itineraries of procurement.

The Neolithic greenstone industry from Valgrana/Tetto Chiappello (Cuneo Province, Northwestern Italy); A combined archaeometric and archaeological study

The greenstone industry of Valgrana/Tetto Chiappello was studied with an archaeo-typological and mineral/petrographic approach (functional study, XRPD, polarized light microscopy and SEM-EDS), to infer the provenance of the raw materials and the role of this site in the general greenstone circulation during Neolithic. Most artifacts (mainly cutting-edge tools) are made of sensu stricto greenstones (≈ 80%), especially mixed Na-pyroxenite and eclogite in roughly equal amounts. The abundance of roughouts and broken tools, with evident use-wear traces, suggests that these implements were possibly used even before (or sometimes without) pre-shaping. Based on mineralogical and morphological ‘markers’, a dual mechanism of raw materials supplying was hypothesized for Valgrana: most tools were retrieved from the closer areas of the southern Monviso ‘massif’ (few dozens of km far, as the crow flies), though a subordinate supply channel was probably represented by commercial trades with other settlements, thus allowing the stocking of raw materials and/or artifacts also from the more distant Voltri ‘massif’ (70-to-80 km far). For what concerns the provisioning mode, a ‘secondary high-ground supplying’ mainly operated in Valgrana, according to which the raw materials were retrieved from greenstone boulders dismantled by erosion and rolled down along the Monviso ‘massif’ mountainsides; however, it cannot be excluded that direct extraction from primary outcrops may also have occurred. In the operative chain, Valgrana can be identified as a subordinate sedentary ‘satellite site’, in which specialized workers took care of raw materials gathering and preliminary tool processing – to be continued and concluded elsewhere.

Piecing together a new mosaic: Gravettian lithic resources and economic territories in the Western Pyrenees

To palliate the current scarcity of information about lithic raw materials in the Western Pyrenees during the Gravettian, the study of ten assemblages has explored the flint procurement patterns and economic organisation of the territory. The study was based on the macro- and microscopic analysis of the different lithic remains. A wide range of flint varieties were used, including some excellent rocks for knapping and others of poorer quality. This diversified catchment pattern was defined by the criteria of quality and suitability for reduction. Although procurement took place mostly at the primary outcrops, there is some evidence of limited acquisition in secondary deposits. Within the economic territory of the Western Pyrenees, divergences in the connections between the outcrops on one side of the mountains and the archaeological sites on the other may indicate different territorial or economic roles for each side. In general terms, the northern side may have been more residential with more stable habitation, while the southern side was linked with logistic tasks and more seasonal occupation. The economic connections between this territory and surrounding areas revealed by the lithic resources are the reflection of inter-group contacts and an economic mosaic imbricated with a cultural or symbolic one.

Micro-PIXE studies on prehistoric chert tools: elemental mapping to determine Palaeolithic lithic procurement

This paper contributes to an understanding of the distances and choices involved in raw material procurement strategies by Upper Palaeolithic communities through a Pyrenean geo-archaeological case study. Methodologically, it involved using Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) with a focused proton beam to determine the concentration and distribution of elements in geological samples from three natural primary outcrops belonging to two geological formations outcropping in the French side of the Pyrenees. While it was not possible to distinguish the formation through reference to major and minor elements, some variations were revealed at the trace elemental level. With the aim to determine if these elements were associated with the Si matrix or to a specific inclusion, elemental maps were acquired, and the elemental composition of the identified inclusions were also determined. These chemical signatures were then compared to those generated from archaeological artefacts from sites in northern Spain as a means of reconstructing the catchment areas used by prehistoric groups for their chert procurement. The results indicate the existence of trans-Pyrenean long distance procurement strategies during the Magdalenian (13,700 to the 18,800 cal BP).

Mineral-petrographic study of greenstone cobbles from Quaternary alluvial deposits and Oligocene conglomerates of the Lemme valley (northwestern Italy): Comparison with analogous Neolithic polished stone implements and archaeometric implications

Rare HP meta-ophiolites of archeologic interest occur in the western Alps, both as small primary outcrops at high altitude located in the Monviso or Voltri massifs and as boulders/pebbles in the derived secondary conglomeratic deposits and/or alluvial beds downhill/downstream, originated after erosion of the former ones. Despite their scarceness, these rocks – in the archaeologic literature still grouped under the term “greenstones” – are of paramount importance for archaeologists, since they were used to produce polished stone tools rediscovered in prehistoric sites spread all over Europe. Tracing the sources of these raw materials is an important issue for reconstructing the migratory fluxes and trade routes of our ancestors. A certain number of “greenstone” geologic samples were retrieved from the alluvial beds of the Lemme valley streams (southeastern Piemonte, Italy) and in the Oligocene conglomerate units of the Tertiary Piemonte Basin, presently exposed in the same valley. Representative samples were analyzed with a classic mineralogical and petrographic approach, which includes XRPD, polarizing microscope and SEM-EDS. These rocks compositions and microstructures were then compared with those of analogous implements found in archaeological sites located nearby and already described in the literature, searching for analogous traits suggesting a common origin. The obtained outcomes show that these secondary deposits of the Lemme valley – originated from the dismantlement of upstream primary outcrops in the Voltri massif (or from a close, analogous palaeo-unit, nowadays completely eroded) – might have represented, during the early-to-middle Neolithic, one of the preferential supply sources of raw “greenstones” for the archaeologic sites of Brignano Frascata, Momperone, Villaromagnano and Rivanazzano.

The chert workshop of Tozal de la Mesa (Alins del Monte, Huesca, Spain) and its exploitation in historical times

In 2012, during a field survey to locate primary outcrops of cherts in the Carrodilla Mountain Range (Huesca, Spain), abundant remains of chert-knapping were found next to nodular cherts in primary and sub-primary position from the Garumnian limestones. Chert knapping evidences were discovered in Tozal de la Mesa mount, near the town of Alins del Monte (Huesca, Spain), in the first prepyrenean foothills of the province of Huesca.In order to define the features of the workshop and to determine their limits, in 2015 we conducted a field survey. Due to these works, it has been possible to define the perimeter of the chert workshop as well as to collect abundant lithic remains of chert and other rocks (e.g., ophites) that may have been directly related to chert exploitation.In this paper we are going to present the results obtained after the textural, micropaleontological, petrographic and mineralogical characterization of these cherts as well as the results of the techno-typological and traceological analyses. Moreover, we will define the features of the chert workshop and its functionality.The first approach to contextualize the recovered materials of Tozal de la Mesa workshop area has allowed determining an exploitation of the Garumnian cherts that has lasted until the late nineteenth century according to some recovered products (e.g., pottery) and to oral sources.

Secondary Raw Material Sources of Pedernal Chert in the Albuquerque Basin, New Mexico

Prehistoric quarries targeted primary outcrops of Pedernal chert at Cerro Pedernal and San Pedro Peaks in north-central New Mexico. A long-standing tradition of secondary-source Pedernal chert use is also evident throughout the archaeological record of the Albuquerque Basin. Santa Fe Group gravels distributed across the basin contain abundant recycled Pedernal chert clasts that provide an important locally available source of this lithic raw material. LA-ICP-MS analysis of Pedernal chert collected from primary sources, Santa Fe Group gravels, and Pedernal chert artifacts from the basin revealed no significant chemical differences among these materials. Pedernal chert is most often associated with its primary source at Cerro Pedernal; however, geologic evidence reveals that recycled Pedernal chert clasts within Albuquerque Basin gravel deposits most likely originated from outcrops along the San Pedro–Sierra Nacimiento range. Size distributions among Pedernal chert gravels found within differing portions of the Albuquerque Basin present specific limitations on lithic reduction strategies. As such, regional settlement distributions and lithic assemblage variability reflect patterned variation in the use of these secondary deposits through time.

Petrographic classification of unusual high-pressure metamorphic rocks

A great number of prehistoric stone implements from Western Europe are made of high-pressure (H P ) metamorphic lithotypes, such as Na-pyroxenites and fine-grained eclogites. These rocks represent minor “accessory” lithologies that occur as either small primary outcrops or secondary clastic deposits derived from erosion of the former. Due to their scarcity, these lithologies have been partly neglected by the Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks (SCMR) of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Their archaeometric relevance, however, is important. A new petrographic classification of these H P metamorphic lithotypes is presented here, which is consistent with the recommendations of the SCMR. Two simple diagrams are suggested, which are useful to classify “ jades ”, mainly consisting of Na-pyroxenes, and rocks mainly consisting of Na-pyroxenes and garnets. Other unusual H P rocks, sometimes used to make archaeological implements, are also considered and classified according to a serious petrographic approach.

Mapping stone: using GIS spatial modelling to predict lithic source zones

We present a new approach to predicting the location of sources of flakeable stone using GIS modelling of raw material proportions obtained from site assemblage data. This approach offers a valuable tool for locating potential source areas and investigating past lithic provisioning and landuse when abundant site assemblage data is available but precise source locations are unknown. Using published and grey literature on raw material composition for 84 sites, we generate a model of varying raw material concentrations for the Moreton Region of Southeast Queensland, Australia, and test our predicted source locations against known prehistoric quarries, geology maps and ground truthing of two key predicted areas with distinctive raw materials. Our results suggest distinct source areas are identifiable, suggesting that primary outcrops are more important sources of stone in this region than large streams and rivers.

Sedimentary bodies, forms and occurrences in the Tudorevo and Mirovo glacial deposits of northern Velebit (Croatia)

A small glacier of cirque-valley type existed during the Late Pleistocene Wurm Glacial in the Tudorevo and Mirovo karst valleys of Northern Velebit. Its source was in Tudorevo, and it moved through Dundovic Mirovo and Bilensko Mirovo to Baricevic Dolac, shaping U-valleys around 4 km in length. After melting, glacial deposits remained, composed of chaotic and unsorted till, composed of carbonate sand, debris and sub-rounded clasts, cobbles and blocks of predominantly Middle Jurassic and subordinately Lower Jurassic carbonate rocks. In Dundovic Mirovo and Bilensko Mirovo, where the largest masses of glacial deposits occur, terminal and recessional moraines can be found over the ground moraine, as well as some other features, mostly drumlins (drumlin field), eskers, erratic blocks, kettle holes and striations. Some erratics have been transported for more than 4 km from their primary outcrops, e.g. clasts of Lower Jurassic Toarcian Spotty limestone. A terminal moraine was deposited between Bilensko Mirovo and Baricevic Dolac, perpendicular to the glaciated U-valley and it forms the Bilo hill, the northern and southern foothills of which are composed partly of glaciofluvial deposits. Between Tudorevo and Mirovo, a recessional moraine occurs above the ground moraine. The glacier was subject to polyphase melting and freezing, and the youngest freezing events may be related to cirques in Tudorevo. During melting events, glacier lakes are supposed to have existed, initially in the Baricevic Dolac, later in Mirovo area and finally in Tudorevo. These discharged into the karst underground by percolation through till and by erosion to the karstified underlying Middle Jurassic carbonates.

Increasing data (INAA) on Ecuadorian obsidian artifacts: preliminary provenance and a clue for pre-Columbian eastward trade

In this work we carried out INAA major (Na, K, Ca and Fe %) and trace (ppm) elements (plus Mn by FAAS analysis) of 15 obsidian samples (waste flakes) coming from an unknown archaeological site ( 14C-AMS age of 1425 AD) located on the south-eastern flank of the back-arc Sumaco volcano (to the east of the Cordillera Real) and from two already known pre-Columbian archaeological localities: La Florida (Quito) and Milan (Cayambe). Literature compositional data of the Ecuadorian obsidian outcrops provide some constraints on the provenance of the analyzed waste flakes, even though different methods of analyses make comparisons a difficult task. Concerning the obsidian artifacts of La Florida and Milan, they come from the well known Sierra de Guamanì obsidian sources (Cordillera Real). By contrast, the obsidian fragments of the Sumaco settlement show some compositional characters compatible with obsidian erratic pebbles recently discovered in some river banks of the Amazonian foothills draining the easternmost flanks of the Antisana volcano in the Cordillera Real as well. In this way, the obsidian artifacts found at the Sumaco site reinforce the opinion that Ecuadorian source inventory is not yet exhaustive. Although the Antisana volcano seems to be the best candidate to find out additional primary outcrops of obsidian sources, it cannot be also excluded that sub-Andean and Amazonian people directly took advantage from obsidian secondary sources (e.g. river banks), rather than procurements from primary outcrops in the Cordillera Real. The new archaeological findings at the Sumaco volcano are really of paramount importance in tracing the ancient routes of a possible obsidian eastward trade toward the Amazonian region.