Prevailing Gender Norms Research Articles

The Unsung Propagandists

As the nation rallied its resources for wartime in 1942, the Office of War Information (OWI) assumed a pivotal role in disseminating information related to the war and aimed at mobilizing the American populace. Within the organizational framework of the OWI, a small cohort of pioneering women ascended to leadership positions, challenging prevailing gender norms and reconfiguring the narrative surrounding women's wartime engagement. Classified after the war’s end, their records are now part of the 7,112 boxes that encompass the totality of the OWI’s records, now housed in the National Archives. An exploration of the documents of these women, including correspondence, published work, and other internal records, paints the picture of their continuous participation and influence which resulted in some of the most visible domestic propaganda campaigns of the Second World War. Previous scholarship, while plentiful in the exploration of the domestic roles of women during the war, fails to acknowledge the directorship of these women in their efforts to rally national support for not just female recruitment, but other facets of wartime activity. Through an in-depth examination of archival materials collected from the OWI, this research seeks to contribute to a nuanced understanding of female contributions on the American home front.

Positive masculinity programmes and attitudes towards nonconforming gender identities among young males in urban Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, and Rwanda.

Implementing programmes on sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) in sub-Saharan Africa often involves promoting inclusive sexual identity/orientation. However, whether and how the programmes are changing gender norms in the target populations have not been established. This study was designed to determine whether participation in Positive Masculinity (PM) programmes can change attitudes associated with prevailing gender norms. We explored attitudes towards nonconforming sexual identity/orientation among young males in selected informal settlements in Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Nigeria and Rwanda. The key variables we tested included "country of participation" and other socio-demographics such as "education", "marital status" and "prior residential location" (rural or urban). We found no significant association between participation in PM programmes with attitudes towards nonconforming sexual identities/orientations across our target populations irrespective of educational qualification, marital status, and previous location of residence. By contrast, religious teachings showed up in the qualitative responses as a significant factor influencing young people's resistance to PM programmes' advocating for inclusive sexuality. Additionally, negative masculinity attributes had significant negative association with attitudes towards nonconforming sexual identity, while respondents with violent tendencies showed significant positive attitudes. We conclude that current PM interventions do not significantly contribute to positive attitudes towards inclusive sexuality in DRC, Nigeria, and Rwanda.

Women in Post-World War II America: Portrayals, Stereotypes, and Challenges

This essay examines the portrayal of women in post-World War II America, focusing on the perpetuation of gender stereotypes and challenges faced by women in the era. Through historical and visual analysis of primary sources, namely a Coca-Cola poster and the iconic V-J Day in Times Square photograph, the study reveals the complexities underlying societal attitudes towards women during this transformative period. The Coca-Cola poster exemplifies the idealized image of women as submissive caregivers, despite their growing role in the workforce. Similarly, the analysis of the V-J Day photograph unveils the contrast between the perceived romance and the reality of non-consensual interaction, shedding light on the evolving understanding of consent and the limitations of prevailing gender norms. By juxtaposing historical context and visual representation, this research underscores the nuanced interplay between media imagery and the evolving societal roles of women in post-war America. The study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges and representations women faced in shaping the post-war landscape.

Patriarchal Dominance in English Literature

Patriarchal dominance has been a prevalent theme in English literature throughout its history. Many literary works reflect and critique the societal norms and power structures that have historically favored men over women. Patriarchal norms prescribe rigid gender roles and expectations for men and women, reinforcing stereotypes and inequalities. Women are often relegated to traditional roles as caregivers, homemakers, and subordinate members of the family, while men are expected to be the primary breadwinners and decision-makers. These gender roles perpetuate unequal power dynamics and limit women's autonomy and agency. Prominent examples include Shakespeare's plays, where gender roles and power imbalances are often central to the plot, and classic novels like Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice," which explores women's limited options in a patriarchal society. Over time, literature has evolved to challenge and subvert these patriarchal norms, with authors like Virginia Woolf and Charlotte Perkins Gilman addressing issues of gender inequality and women's autonomy. Feminist literature and criticism have also played a significant role in analyzing and deconstructing patriarchal themes in English literature. Patriarchal dominance, characterized by the historical and societal power imbalance that favors men over women, has been a recurring theme in English literature throughout the ages. This theme reflects and critiques the prevailing gender norms, roles, and inequalities that have persisted within different periods and cultures of English-speaking societies. From early literary works to contemporary literature, patriarchal dominance remains a complex and enduring subject of exploration.

The Lost World of Rani Jindan: Rewriting Women’s History in Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni’s the Last Queen

The paper aims to look at the politics of representation and the importance of historical fiction in renegotiating women’s position in history by focusing on the representation of Rani Jindan Kaur in Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni’s The Last Queen (2021). The book is written from Rani Jindan Kaur’s perspective who was the last wife of Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the last regent queen of the Sikh Empire to reclaim her lost identity. This analysis begins with a brief description of Sikh empire and its glorious past with a special focus on a woman who equally contributed and shaped it. It then traces how historians have always been partial towards women for not giving them enough space in the annals of history. This underrepresentation was the systematic erasure as not only were they punished for stepping outside the limited roles offered to them but if they achieve great things they were often ignored or forced to submit to the prevailing gender norms of their times. It then focuses on how Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni has used the erasure of women representation in history as a winning chance to rewrite the lost world of Rani Jindan that is not much talked about in historical documents. It further points out how this systemic bias has perpetuated a skewed historical narrative that failed to recognize the full extent of women's contributions and resilience throughout history.

‘It’s a Family Matter’: Inaction and Denial of Domestic Violence

This article provides a grounded example of backlash in action surrounding the implementation of the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act 2010 in Bangladesh. While formulation and enactment of the law marked significant achievements, its implementation has been weak. Unlike conventional analyses that concentrate on backlash in gender equality policy formulation, this study focuses on the obstacles encountered during the implementation phase. Through in‑depth interviews with advocates and stakeholders responsible for implementation, the article examines their attitudes and interests concerning the law and women’s rights to life, dignity, and bodily integrity. Prevailing gender norms perpetuate the trivialisation of domestic violence, framing it as a personal issue of minimal importance. Consequently, service providers tend to delegitimise and deprioritise it. This article investigates the strategies and tactics of deliberate inaction employed by backlash proponents, which is different from lack of capacity, and explores the counter‑strategies deployed by advocates aiming to ensure the Act’s effective implementation.

‘There should be equality in opinions’: Political Opinion in Intimate Partner Violence Claims

Abstract There is longstanding acceptance that opposition to discrimination against women and/or non-conformity with prevailing gender norms may constitute a political opinion in refugee law. However, courts have not consistently taken an expansive view of political opinion in gender cases. In particular, notwithstanding the global prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV), there is little jurisprudential and, crucially, academic clarity in relation to the political implications of non-conformity with social mores in the context of IPV. Despite this inhospitable environment, lawyers continue to argue this ground in IPV claims, particularly at jurisprudential crisis points, as occurred recently in the aftermath of a 2018 decision in the United States, overruling previous precedent granting refugee status based on membership in a particular social group. This article provides an overarching examination of the academic discussion on the desirability and practicability of applying the political opinion ground and the case law considering this ground to date. Using the jurisprudence of appeal tribunals in five common law jurisdictions, the article reveals commonalities in both successful and unsuccessful claims in this context. Notably, it identifies that ‘nexus’ to an opinion is a previously underappreciated barrier to applying the political opinion ground in IPV claims. These observations provide a crucial foundation for further reasoned consideration of the political opinion ground in IPV claims which may arise given this ground’s ongoing invocation at first instance and in lower-level administrative decision making.

Who Should Scale Back? Experimental Evidence on Employer Support for Part-Time Employment and Working Hours Norms for Couples with Young Children

Abstract This experimental study investigates how hypothetical employer support for part-time work shapes working hours norms for mothers and fathers with young children in Germany. It extends previous studies by focusing on the couple context, for instance by exploring interdependencies with each partner’s earnings potential. The analysis is framed using capability-based explanations combined with a perspective of gender as a social structure. A factorial survey experiment was implemented within the German pairfam panel. Linear and multinomial logistic multilevel regressions were conducted with 5,856 respondents. Hypothetical employer support similarly increases respondents’ recommendations to reduce working hours for mothers and fathers and supports dual part-time arrangements. In couples who face opposing incentives in terms of relative earnings or promotion prospects and employer support for part-time work, prevailing gender norms seem to reinforce the traditionalizing constraints and attenuate the de-traditionalizing influence. Respondents with more egalitarian gender beliefs respond more strongly to paternal employer support.

Late Nineteenth-Century Radical Utopias in Theatre Reviews

Anne Charlotte Leffler’s Sanna Kvinnor (True Women 1883) is one of many gender-critical plays by Swedish women playwrights during the 1880s which linger in the shadows of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House. Sanna kvinnor certainly asks for a change of the prevailing gender norms in the 1880s, in other words, for a transformation into a better world, but how was this utopian drive staged at the theatres and how was it received by the theatre critics? By taking the theoretical point of departure in Slavoj Žižek’s notion of a radical utopia (2003), the aim of my article is to illuminate the reviewers’ perception of the stagings in the first production at the Royal Dramatic Theatre in 1883 and in Albert Ranft’s touring production 1884–86. My archival sources mainly consist of reviews from which both the stagings and the reviewers’ reactions will be traced through a systematic method developed from the semiotics of Jurij Lotman.

Removing the glass ceiling in Swedish wildlife management? A norm-critical study of the potential for more gender-equal moose management groups

ABSTRACT This empirical study investigates how “gender is done” within Swedish wildlife management by identifying prevailing gender norms, and how gender norms can be challenged from a norm-critical perspective, in order to promote women’s participation. The basis for the study is an ongoing evaluation of the Swedish Hunters’ Association training initiative to increase women’s participation in moose management groups. Three main norm categories are identified: performance; social interaction; and hunting as a lifestyle. Recommendations for continued gender equality work include active leadership in gender equality issues, a review of potentially excluding structures, promoting female mentors and networks, and the use of formal and transparent recruitment procedures. An understanding of norms affecting women’s participation (or nonparticipation) in wildlife management is fundamental to design effective training, recruitment and nomination strategies in the future.

Reproductive Health in Health Polices of Punjab Province: Gaps and Challenges

Pakistan has to place a strong emphasis on reproduction as part of an inclusive healthcare strategy that would improve the general health of its population. The aim of this paper is to analyze the health policies of the Punjab Province post-18th Amendment by focusing on the area of reproductive health. For this purpose, health policies were analyzed thematically. After reviewing and analyzing policies, we identified areas of concern about reproductive health care, including the lack of infrastructure and human resources and the lack of evidence-based health-related data and research to respond to or design need-based initiatives. Additionally, reproductive health seems to revolve around special issues and target communities by taking international commitments to the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals as a guideline (maternal and child health and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases). It is also found that significant donor funds are only related to family planning and maternal and child care services. These findings indicate that reproductive health measures regulate the fertility and sexual behavior of the target community, along with focusing more on maternal health, which somehow reveals the prevailing gender norms regarding roles in society. Reproductive health issues among men, transgender people, and non-parents are ignored. It is hoped that the identified gaps might be helpful in planning and ensuring access, quality, and equity in reproductive health services.

Portrayal of Gender Roles in Pakistani Literature: A Critical Analysis

Introduction: This critical analysis delves into the portrayal of gender roles in Pakistani literature, exploring how societal constructs, cultural traditions, and historical contexts shape the representation of men and women. The study compares Tehmina Durrani's 'Blasphemy' and Qaisra Shahraz's 'The Holy Woman,' both by Pakistani women, to analyze the depiction of gender roles within Pakistani society. Methodology: The analysis focuses on the roles assigned to men and women, the hierarchical power structures that govern their interactions, and the resilience of individuals who challenge traditional gender norms. Results/Findings: The analysis underscores the significance of literature as a reflection of societal values and aspirations and a catalyst for challenging and reshaping prevailing gender norms Future Direction: This analysis aims to initiate a discourse to embark on a constructive journey toward a more inclusive and equitable society in Pakistan. By shedding light on diverse gender experiences, fostering understanding, empathy, and respect, and creating safe spaces for dialogue, we can challenge preconceptions and take meaningful steps toward's building a more just and equal society for all.

Gender, Economy, and the Law: Women Entrepreneurs in Indonesian and Islamic Legal Perspectives

The relationship between women, the economy, and state law in Muslim countries has generated intense debate about whether such laws have promoted or inversely impeded women's rights and gender equality. This study aims to assess women's economic rights, especially in entrepreneurship, in Indonesia from the state and Islamic legal perspectives. It is qualitative research with the juridical and sociological legal approach by analyzing the dimensions of report on entrepreneurship in Women, Business, and the Law 2023 achieved by Indonesia, Law state-related, and Islamic Law. It finds that Indonesia has promoted women's economic rights, including entrepreneurship, in the state law, despite some room for improvement. Women have the same rights to business licenses, enter into contracts or agreements, and open bank accounts, despite a lack of affirmative actions for access to credits for women entrepreneurs. As the biggest Muslim country in the world, Islamic law has influenced such state law. Islam has granted women the right to be self-employed, despite some cultural barriers to achieving gender equality. The government is expected to promote women's economic rights, including the ones on entrepreneurship, and needs to overturn the prevailing gender norms that assign women multiple burdens.

Breaking the Glass Ceiling: Empowering Women in the Korean Labor Market after COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused significant damage to women’s labor. This study analyzes the situation of the Korean labor market from various angles using available national statistical data. While the employment rate fell and the unemployment rate rose due to COVID-19, the unemployment rate among young people in their 20s and the elderly in their 50s and older rose. Gender segregation in occupations and industries, a chronic problem in the Korean labor market, has intensified and also increased the gender wage gap. It was found that the gender wage gap was large in jobs where many women were engaged. Overall, the number of non-regular workers increased in jobs where women were concentrated, and the number of employed people among vulnerable groups decreased. Online classes and telecommuting due to social distancing have increased women’s housework and childcare burden. As a result, the employment rate of working women with young children fell. In this situation, the mismatch between job seekers and job openings also intensified, showing that the social employment system was not working properly. COVID-19 has adversely affected women in the labor market in Korea, especially elderly women with low education levels and non-regular female workers. The damage caused by the 1997 and 2008 economic crises was also concentrated on women’s labor, yet Korean society did not learn from those experiences. Although many efforts have been made over the past 10 years to resolve discrimination in the labor market and prevailing gender norms in Korean society, their effect has been insignificant. This study emphasizes the need for a more detailed and active women’s labor policy. It also presents the need for a social system that properly responds to pandemic situations like COVID-19.

On tiptoe: Identity tension and reconciliation among Shanghai stay‐at‐home mothers

AbstractIt is well documented that motherhood influences gendered outcomes in work institutions. However, how paid work influences women's private sphere and sense of self remains unclear and could vary across societies. This article focuses on identity construction among 28 college‐educated stay‐at‐home mothers in Shanghai. The findings from semi‐structured, in‐depth interviews reveal tension negotiation and reconciliation within these mothers' multiple self‐identities. Despite choosing to voluntarily leave their paid jobs and become stay‐at‐home mothers, participants differentiated between their maternal identity and their stay‐at‐home mother identity; in particular, they perceived motherhood as more valuable and socially acceptable than the choice to be a stay‐at‐home mother (i.e., participants readily identified as mothers but hesitated to describe themselves as stay‐at‐home mothers). To avoid this tension and protect their self‐image, participants incorporated aspects of their previous working identity into their stay‐at‐home mother identity, such as taking part‐time jobs and framing their childrearing experience as a future career asset. The results help explain how the notion of work shapes women's self‐image, even when they leave the labor market. Overall, the findings reinforce mothering imperatives and identities and the need to understand them from a cross‐cultural perspective in relation to societal prevailing gender norms.

Women and Leadership in the Jordanian Armed Forces

Ever since gaining approval to be admitted to the Jordanian Armed Forces (JAF), Jordanian women have become more visible in this sector. Women were recruited in various fields across the military, including administrative posts, education, and human resources. There is a noticeable gap in the number of women reaching leadership positions despite the quality of their work and their tremendous contributions in this sector. The present study aims to explore the correlation between military culture and environment and women’s perceptions of leadership by drawing on quantitative data from female personnel at Al-Hussein Medical Center (HMC). A five-point Likert scale was adopted in the current questionnaire to test the extent of agreement with question items suggested for each aspect of work culture and environment construct. The results demonstrate that women at HMC perceive their work culture and environment positively, which in turn reflects their positive perceptions about their quality of work and their ability to lead. The female participants at HMC demonstrate positive perceptions of gender that challenge prevailing gender norms through gaining necessary support and opportunities for career advancement. The study results imply that supportive work environments have a greater impact on women’s aspirations to become leaders.

The Gendered Academy: Women’s Career Progression in Pakistani Universities

Academy in Pakistan is a gendered space that manifests and nurtures various forms of inequalities. This paper examines women’s experiences of working in Pakistani academies focusing primarily on factors influencing their career progression. Data for this paper is drawn from larger qualitative research on the experiences of women in the academy. Phenomenological interviews were carried out with fourteen participants including professors, associate professors, assistant professors, and lecturers from two Public universities in Pakistan. The paper unveils the struggles of women academics in sustaining in the academy due to prevailing gender norms. Several organizational challenges were narrated by the participants including; difficulties in conducting and publishing academic research, discrimination in appointments and promotion practices, workplace favoritism, lack of networking opportunities, and absence of mentors for junior faculty. Resultantly, women professors, irrespective of their ranks, qualifications, skills, and confidence, feel frustrated and find it difficult to contribute effectively to teaching and research. The paper contributes to the global debates on gender inequalities experienced by women in the academy. These findings call for a more gender-balanced approach in the academy to include women as equal stakeholders.

Gender-related factors associated with delayed diagnosis of tuberculosis in Eastern Europe and Central Asia

Tuberculosis (TB), a preventable and treatable disease, yearly affects millions of people and takes more than a million lives. Recognizing the symptoms and obtaining the correct diagnosis are vital steps towards treatment and cure. How timely a person with TB gets diagnosed may be influenced by biological differences between the sexes, and factors that are linked to the person’s gender, in the context of the prevailing gender norms. According to our hypothesis, gender-related factors contribute to delays in the diagnosis of TB. We investigated four countries (Georgia, Kazakhstan, Republic of Moldova, and Tajikistan) of Eastern Europe and Central Asia (EECA) - a region with a high burden of drug-resistant TB, scarcity of gender-related TB information, and varying gender equality. Retrospective information was collected directly from the people with a history of TB - through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. We did not find differences between genders in the way participants recognized TB symptoms. In three countries women de-prioritized seeking diagnosis because of their lack of access to finances, and household-related obligations. In all four countries, men, traditionally carrying the weight of economically supporting the family, tended to postpone TB diagnosis. In two countries women experienced stigma more often than men, and it was a deterrent factor to seeking healthcare. The role of gender in obtaining the correct diagnosis came forth only among the respondents from Georgia and to some extent from Kazakhstan. We conclude that there are barriers to health care seeking and TB diagnosis that affect differently women, men and gender-diverse persons in EECA Region.

Hiding or Pleasing: Spousal Disagreement Among Ugandan Maize Farmers

To gain a better understanding of intrahousehold bargaining processes, surveys increasingly collect data from co-heads individually, especially on decision-making, asset ownership and labour contributions. However, answers provided by co-heads to the same set of questions often differ substantially. Recent research suggests that while some of this disagreement is due to random measurement error and cognitive bias, part also reflects non-overlapping information sets. We document differences in answers between male and female co-heads in monogamous smallholder maize-farming households in Uganda. We first confirm that not all disagreement can be explained by measurement error or bias. Using a field experiment, we then test if disagreement is due to information asymmetry between male and female co-heads. We also test an alternative explanation where discord is attributed to co-heads’ tendency to respond in line with prevailing gender norms and social customs. While the interventions did seem to reduce discord in survey response about decision-making, we do not find that information asymmetry nor reporting in line with gender norms and customs are the primary drivers of disagreement.

Free to Be Me? Evolving Gender Expression and the Dynamic Interplay between Authenticity and the Desire to Be Accepted at Work

This study examines how the gender expression of transgender individuals evolves as they transition in the context of work. We draw from interviews with 25 transgender employees conducted at four points in time over a two-year period as they initiate, perform, and continue their gender transition. Contributing to the literature on authenticity and identity transitions, our findings challenge the assumptions that individuals know how to express an authentic self and that authenticity has an endpoint by pointing to the evolving and relational nature of authenticity that involves a trial-and-error approach in which transgender individuals learn to become authentic as they engage in various forms of gender performativity. Further, we position authenticity as a continuum, as individuals may temper their gender expression to elicit acceptance and express a gender that feels “authentic enough” as they contend with the impact of prevailing gender norms and expectations in the workplace. Finally, the findings suggest that the identity transition process evolves in a non-linear way and involves a dynamic interplay between the desire to express one’s gender in a way that feels authentic and the desire to feel accepted by others.