Gas Phase Pressure Research Articles

On the numerical simulation of two-phase flow in shale gas reservoirs

In the past two decades, the scientific and technological community dedicated to oil and gas production has demonstrated a growing interest in unconventional reservoirs containing natural gas, such as shale reservoirs. These deposits typically contain significant volumes of gas, but their low intrinsic permeability is a drawback. For example, technological advances using horizontal well drilling have led to economically viable production from such reservoirs, and in this context, numerical simulations are relevant in planning natural gas recovery. In this paper, we carry out numerical simulations of isothermal two-phase gas-water flow in shale gas reservoirs. We considered the effects of slippage and adsorption employing the Klinkenberg model and the Langmuir isotherm for the gas phase. It also incorporates a pressure-dependent correction in determining effective permeability for both phases and horizontal wells for production. The Control Volume-Finite Difference method is applied to discretize the governing flow equations, employing centered block grids and fully implicit numerical formulations. We linearize the discretized equation for gas phase pressure using the Picard method, while we use the Newton method for the discretized equation for water phase saturation. The results are analyzed in terms of the pressure at the production well, leading to an evaluation of how the effects considered for the effective permeabilities of the phases influence pressure variation and the times of occurrence of the flow regimes for the considered well-reservoir system.

Investigation on growth rate and quality of diamond materials in MPCVD system

Abstract In the paper, experiments of diamond growth with varied parameters are conducted in the microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition system. The growth mechanism of the diamond is analysed based on the phase diagram. The results show that the growth rate and the crystalline quality of the diamond are influenced by the gas phase and chamber pressure. The oxygen can help to improve the crystalline quality of the diamond, while to decrease the growth rate. The methane concentration and the chamber pressure are also key parameters to influence the quality and the growth rate of the diamond. The nitrogen concentration can contribute to the growth of the diamond, and the thermal conductivity is influenced at the same time. The grown diamond substrate can be used as thermal conductor in power devices with promising thermal conductivity.

An analytical study of TEG loss in a natural gas purification plant based on high-pressure droplet angular scattering

In the process of purifying natural gas, natural gas dehydration plants use triethylene glycol (TEG) as a solvent for absorption. However, the loss of TEGs in the form of droplets can pollute pipelines and create a technological challenge. Using the geometric optical approximation (GOA) method, a model was developed to predict the scattering of droplets at high pressure. Based on this model, a device was designed and constructed to inspect droplets in external pipelines and distillation column tailgate lines online, which are the outlets of the natural gas dehydration unit (TEG absorber tower) of four columns in stable production. This device analyzes the components of the sampled droplets and performs online inspection to ensure smooth and safe operation. The results of the experiment indicate that the TEG content in the droplet samples exceeded 80%, which helped identify the source of the loss. The amount of treatment directly affected the concentration and distribution features of the entrained droplets, whereas the impact of the gas-phase pressure change was negligible. This study investigated three different forms of filtration separation, which provided industrial data for the separation and recovery process of entrained droplets. This study provides a new testing tool and method to examine plate towers under high pressure and provides a theoretical reference for dewatering procedures in natural gas purification plants.

Nucleation mechanism of methane heterogeneous condensation under different driving forces

Clarifying alkane gas condensation characteristics is crucial to designing and optimizing liquefaction heat exchangers, which imposes higher demands on the microscopic understanding of alkane heterogeneous condensation. Thus, in this study, the condensation process of methane nucleation under different driving forces is investigated by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The dynamics characteristics of nucleation in methane heterogeneous condensation are analyzed by varying initial gas-phase pressure, cold wall temperature, and ethane content. The results showed that increasing the initial gas-phase pressure enhances intermolecular interactions, which alter the cluster formation path and significantly increase the methane gas nucleation rate from 1.997 × 1033/(m3·s) to 1.068 × 1034/(m3·s). While lowering the cold wall temperature promotes condensation by weakening the thermal motion of the gas molecules. Once condensation nuclei form in the system, the lower temperature conditions from lowering the cold wall temperature result in a higher growth rate of the clusters. Additionally, the addition of easily condensable component ethane can improve the condensation nucleation characteristics of low-saturated methane gas, facilitating the liquefaction of methane. This study aims to provide a microscopic understanding of the advancement of gas liquefaction technology by investigating the heterogeneous nucleation of alkane under different conditions from a microscopic perspective.

Eco-Friendly Transformation of Bioethanol into Ethylene over Bimetallic Nickel-Copper Catalysts.

The conversion of bioethanol to ethylene in gas phase and atmospheric pressure was investigated over γ-Al2O3 supported copper and nickel catalysts. These catalysts were prepared by co-precipitation and pre-treated with hydrogen at 450 °C. Six catalysts were studied at 450 °C under a nitrogen atmosphere. It was found that the monometallic Cu/γ-Al2O3 catalyst exhibited the highest ethylene concentration, with a selectivity of around 90 %. The bioethanol conversion obtained was between 57 %-86 %. Another catalyst that exhibited high concentration values was the NiCu1 : 7 bimetallic catalyst. The catalysts were characterised using XRD, SEM, EDS, TEM, TGA, FTIR, Raman, and N2-physisoption techniques. Furthermore, the Cu/γ-Al2O3 catalyst was studied under different reduction temperatures and gas flow conditions. It was found that the catalysts reduced at 350 °C and 35 ml/min N2 flow presented ethylene concentrations between (0.18-0.21) g/L. Moreover, the catalyst deactivation was identified to be first order and the equation of the Cu/γ-Al2O3 catalyst deactivation model was determined. Carbonaceous deposits over the used sample were not detected by Raman and FTIR. It was determined that the Cu/γ-Al2O3 catalyst deactivation could be mainly attributed to the blocking of the catalytic sites by strongly adsorbed compounds and hydroxylation of the catalyst surface.

The Growth Mechanism of Layered Hexagonal Boron Nitride Crystal on Copper Foil

Abstract2D hexagonal boron nitride (h‐BN), which has a similar honeycomb lattice structure to graphene, is a promising dielectric material for a wide variety of applications. Herein, the growth of high‐quality and large‐size multilayer h‐BN crystals on Cu foils is reported by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) at atmospheric pressure. The size of an individual isolated hexagonal crystal of h‐BN is about 20 µm, and the thickness is 3 nm. This paper studies the variables that affect h‐BN growth during the process and the microstructure changes during the growth. Through analysis of the thermal and dynamic processes of chemical vapor deposition, relationships are derived between the mass of h‐BN grown in the gas phase and various temperature and pressure factors. This information is used to develop appropriate parameters for commercial copper foil growth. Finally, using optimized conditions, high‐quality h‐BN at high pressure and low gas flow conditions are grown.

The effect of excessive gas to blood ratios in an ECMO oxygenator.

Oxygenators for paediatric Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) are required to operate over a wide range of flow rates, in a patient group ranging from neonates through to fully grown adolescents. ECMO oxygenators typically have a manufacturer's stated maximum gas: blood flow rate (GBFR) ratio of 2:1, however, many patients require greater ratios than this for adequate CO2 removal. Mismatches in GBFR in theory could result in high gas phase pressures. These increased pressures in theory could cause the formation of gross gaseous microemboli (GME) placing the child at higher risk of neurological injury. We evaluated 6 paediatric and 6 adult A.L.ONE™ ECMO oxygenators and assessed their gas phase pressures and GME release, in an ex vivo setting, in GBFR ratios up to greater than 2, across a range of gas flow (1L - 10L/min) rates with a fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) content of 50% and 100%. There were no increases above 10mmHg observed in gas phase pressures in GBFR >= 2:1 in either adult or paediatric oxygenators. Laboratory examination of GME activity demonstrated a small increase in post-membrane GME release over the study period. GME release was unaffected by FiO2 setting or gas flow rate, with a maximum volume of < 6µL in both paediatric and adult oxygenators. In an ex vivo setting, increasing GBFR above 2:1 in a paediatric oxygenator, and to a GBFR of 2:1 in an adult oxygenator did not significantly increase gas phase pressures, and no oxygenator membrane rupture was observed. There were no associations between gas flow rates and GME production.

H2 promotes the premature replacement of CH4–CO2 hydrate even when the CH4 gas-phase pressure exceeds the phase equilibrium pressure of CH4 hydrate

Submarine CO2 sequestration via solid hydrate has been considered a promising strategy for controlling greenhouse gas emissions. The simultaneous replacement of CH4 from subsea natural gas hydrates through buried CO2 offers a win-win approach. Utilizing H2 as an enhancer to promote CH4–CO2 hydrate replacement, coupled with integrating the replacement products into CH4 steam reforming for cyclic H2 production, presents a potential pathway for CO2 geological storage and eventual H2 recovery. However, the enhancement mechanism of H2 in the hydrate replacement process remains unclear. Focusing on the critical replacement condition, this study investigates the effects of gas-phase partial pressures on hydrate replacement in CH4-rich systems to elucidate the H2 influence mechanism. Remarkably, the results indicate, for the first time, that H2 induces premature CH4 hydrate dissociation under conditions exceeding the corresponding CH4 gas equilibrium pressure in CO2/CH4/H2 ternary gas systems. The critical condition for hydrate replacement depends on the total system pressure, rather than CO2 gas partial pressure. Additionally, in the CH4-rich systems, the driving force for CH4 hydrate decomposition takes precedence over that for hydrate reformation in controlling replacement. The replacement ratio increases from 16.7 % to 24.5 % as the CH4 partial pressure decreases from 2.01 MPa to 1.11 MPa at 274.15 K, despite simultaneous declines in both CO2 partial pressure and total system pressure from 1.70 MPa to 0.97 MPa and from 6.10 MPa to 3.39 MPa, respectively. These findings can provide insights into the improvement of CH4–CO2/H2 hydrate replacement efficiency and the development of oceanic CO2 sequestration.

Microbial hydrogen sinks in the sand-bentonite backfill material for the deep geological disposal of radioactive waste.

The activity of subsurface microorganisms can be harnessed for engineering projects. For instance, the Swiss radioactive waste repository design can take advantage of indigenous microorganisms to tackle the issue of a hydrogen gas (H2) phase pressure build-up. After repository closure, it is expected that anoxic steel corrosion of waste canisters will lead to an H2 accumulation. This occurrence should be avoided to preclude damage to the structural integrity of the host rock. In the Swiss design, the repository access galleries will be back-filled, and the choice of this material provides an opportunity to select conditions for the microbially-mediated removal of excess gas. Here, we investigate the microbial sinks for H2. Four reactors containing an 80/20 (w/w) mixture of quartz sand and Wyoming bentonite were supplied with natural sulfate-rich Opalinus Clay rock porewater and with pure H2 gas for up to 108 days. Within 14 days, a decrease in the sulfate concentration was observed, indicating the activity of the sulfate-reducing bacteria detected in the reactor, e.g., from Desulfocurvibacter genus. Additionally, starting at day 28, methane was detected in the gas phase, suggesting the activity of methanogens present in the solid phase, such as the Methanosarcina genus. This work evidences the development, under in-situ relevant conditions, of a backfill microbiome capable of consuming H2 and demonstrates its potential to contribute positively to the long-term safety of a radioactive waste repository.

Deep learning assisted pressure measurements using femtosecond laser-induced grating scattering technique

The femtosecond laser-induced grating scattering (fs-LIGS) technique has recently been developed and applied for temperature and pressure measurements. In this work, we combined deep learning with the fs-LIGS technique to predict the gas-phase pressure from raw signals without data post-processing. Two deep learning models, a fully connected neural network and a convolutional neural network, were trained to master the hidden relationship between the features of the raw signal traces and the corresponding pressure under which the signal was recorded. Accurate pressure predictions by both models were achieved as mean percentage errors in model-predicted pressures compared to actual values within −4%–2%. These results suggest the feasibility of combining the deep-learning concept with the fs-LIGS technique for instantaneous pressure determination. Given the proper training of the models, this strategy could be extended to the simultaneous measurement of multiple thermodynamic quantities in real-time combustion and reacting flow diagnostics.

Significant Progress of Initiated Chemical Vapor Deposition in Manufacturing Soft Non-spherical Nanoparticles: Upgrading to the Condensed Droplet Polymerization Approach and Key Technological Aspects

Initiated chemical vapor deposition is a unique solvent-free and completely dry vapor-phase deposition technique used to synthesize organic polymer films. In this process, an activated initiator, monomer, and carrier gas are introduced into the reaction chamber simultaneously. This technique has been widely adopted. However, if the monomer and initiator are introduced into the chamber in stages—allowing gas-phase monomer deposition and condensation first, followed by initiator introduction and controlling the monomer partial pressure to be higher than the saturated vapor pressure—non-spherical polymer nanoparticles with dome-like shapes can be obtained. This advanced iCVD technique is referred to as the “Condensed Droplet Polymerization Approach”. This high monomer partial pressure gas-phase deposition is not suitable for forming uniformly composed iCVD films; but interestingly, it can rapidly obtain polymer nanodomes (PNDs). Using CDP technology, Franklin polymerized multifunctional nanodomes in less than 45 s, demonstrating a wide range of continuous particle size variations, from sub-20 nanometers to over 1 micron. This rapid synthesis included a variety of functional polymer nanodomes in just a matter of seconds to minutes. This review discusses the crucial process conditions of the Condensed Droplet Polymerization (CDP) Approach for synthesizing PNDs. The main focus of the discussion was on the two-step method for synthesizing PNDs, where the nucleation mechanism of PNDs, factors influencing their size, and the effect of pressure on the distinct condensation of monomer vapor into polymer nanodomes and polymer films were extensively explored.

Comparison and validation of various drag models for fluidization characteristics of bubble fluidized beds with a high-speed particle image velocimetry experiment

Bubbling liquefaction of dense particles is one of the most common forms of industrial fluidization in gas–solid flow systems. Computational fluid dynamics and the discrete element method are important tools for studying dense gas–solid flows. In these methods, the momentum transfer between phases relies on a drag model, so a reasonable choice of drag model is crucial for accurately predicting the hydrodynamic behavior of dense gas–solid flows. This paper investigates the effect of different drag models on the flow behavior prediction of dense gas–solid flow for the “Small-Scale Challenge Problem-I” published by the National Energy Technology Laboratory in 2013. The gas–solid fluidization characteristics, such as instantaneous particle flow processes, particle velocity vector distributions, changes in the fluidized bed height, and average gas phase pressure drops, were compared for different drag models. A detailed validation analysis of each dominant drag model was carried out in conjunction with the experimental data. The results show that the drag model significantly affects the numerically predicted results of particles’ hydrodynamic behavior, especially in terms of the bed height variation and the remixing behavior of particles. These research results are expected to improve the predictive accuracy of gas–solid flow hydrodynamic behavior and provide guidance for designing and optimizing fluidized beds, which has theoretical and practical significance.

Computational fluid dynamic analysis of a novel particle-to-air fluidized-bed heat exchanger for particle-based thermal energy storage applications

Long-duration energy storage technologies are being targeted to enable cost-effective, decarbonized energy systems. Particle-based thermal energy storage systems are one promising technology by storing excess electricity or heat as sensible thermal energy in inexpensive, solid, inert particles. These systems are only possible if an effective and economical particle-to-working fluid heat exchanger exists. This study predicts the performance of a proposed, direct-contact, particle-to-air, pressurized fluidized-bed heat exchanger using computational fluid dynamics. The common Eulerian-Eulerian framework for modeling fluidized beds is first benchmarked to experimental results at a previously untested operating condition and application. Then, the benchmarked model evaluates the performance of a proposed design for a commercial-scale version of the novel particle-to-air heat exchanger. The results show pressure drop and gas-phase approach temperatures are advantageous compared to other proposed designs for particle-to-air heat exchangers in the literature; approach temperatures were less than 5 °C and gas-phase pressure drop across the fluidized bed was 32 kPa. The model also highlights the importance of gas distributor design and representation in the Eulerian-Eulerian framework to control fluidization behavior. The model built and benchmarked in this study can be leveraged to advance the design and analysis of these heat exchangers critical to the deployment of a promising long-duration energy storage technology.

Subcritical CO2 adsorption on geomaterials of coal-bearing strata in the context of geological carbon sequestration

This paper explores the adsorption behaviour of geomaterials in the framework of CO2 sequestration in shallow level coal seams. Manometric adsorption experiments were carried out on two anthracite coal samples, two rock samples from East Irish Sea, MX80-bentonite, Speswhite kaolinite, dry, wet and biofilm-laden (Bascillus mojavensis-laden) sand at subcritical pressure range (up to 6.4 MPa) of isothermal condition at 298.15 K. The experiments were aimed to investigate the influence of the biogeological conditions of coal and caprock constitutions on CO2 adsorption. At lower pressures, the moisture had an influence on the CO2 adsorption on coal resulted in reduced adsorption capacity. At elevated pressures, the volume expulsion behaviour and coal-water interaction had an influence on the adsorption capacities of moist coal sample and resulted in comparable adsorption capacities to dry sample. The disparity in the adsorption capacities between the wet powdered and wet intact core samples showed that the results obtained with powder samples may not reflect the field conditions. Wet conditions and Bascillus mojavensis bacteria influenced the adsorption capacity of sand and showed CO2 chemisorption capacity. The desorption isotherm pattern of wet and biofilm sand showed that the CO2 was continuously adsorbed independent of the gas phase pressure. Among the clay minerals, bentonite had greater affinity towards CO2. Despite the fact that the adsorption capacity of the cap rock is smaller than that of the coal samples, the experimental investigation with constituents of the cap rock provides insights into the effect of biogeological conditions of coal and rock sample constituents on CO2 storage in coal seams.

Effect of carrier gas type on feeding characteristics of powder supply system

The new powder engine is an efficient power system with powder fuel as propellant. Its excellent performance is inseparable from stable and efficient powder feeding assisted by carrier gas. In this paper, we investigate the effect of carrier gas type (air, N2, CO2 and He, gas viscosity: CO2<N2<air<He) on the powder feeding characteristics of the powder supply system. The experimental results show that the change in carrier gas types has an insignificant effect on the powder flow pattern, but greatly affects the powder mass flow rate, pressure distribution and gas velocity in the silo, which is owing to the difference in the gas viscosity. Moreover, the analysis of powder column stress state reveals that the powder axial stress is related to the gas phase pressure gradient in the powder column. Specifically, under the same differential pressure, the smaller the gas viscosity, the higher the permeability, the greater the gas phase pressure gradient, the greater the powder axial stress pressure transferred to the outlet, thus obtaining a higher mass flow rate. However, energy analysis indicates that the smaller the gas viscosity, the higher the energy consumption required to transport the same mass powder. We hope our findings can provide ideas and references for efficient powder feeding.

Multiple field synergy mechanism of the desulfurization process in the intensified spouted beds

The semi-dry flue gas desulfurization process in the conventional spouted bed (CSB), integral multi-jet spouted bed (IMJSFB), spouted bed with longitudinal vortex generator (SB with LVG) and swirl blade nozzle (SB with SBN) was simulated using the multi fluid model. Meanwhile, the multiphase reaction system of intensified spouted beds was explored based on the field synergy theory. The analysis of the synergy angle among three fields of the gas phase velocity, temperature, and pressure in the spouted bed shows that adding intensification structures can effectively enhance the gas heat transfer and reduce the gas drag and pressure drop. The intensified spouted beds also had better synergy among the multiphase field of velocity, velocity gradient, and temperature gradient. The desulfurization efficiencies in the CSB, SB with LVG, IMJSFB, and SB with SBN were 77.75 %, 80.85 %, 87.97 %, and 88.81 %, respectively, and the promotion effects in descending order of SBN > multi-jets > LVG.

Extended model of bouncing boundary for droplet collisions considering numerous different liquids

Sprays are widely utilised in different technical and industrial applications. The produced droplet size spectrum is one of the most important parameters that determine the spray characteristics and performance. Depending on the operational conditions and the spray structure, the droplet size spectrum obtained after atomisation will be of course modified by collisions between droplets. In numerical calculations, the Euler/Lagrangian approach is a favourable method for obtaining relatively accurate predictions of spraying processes. However, for correctly modelling droplet collisions, reliable boundary line correlations are needed for distinguishing the different droplet collision outcomes, which are bouncing, coalescence, and separations. These boundary lines are summarised in so-called collision maps to demark the various outcome scenarios. The result of a binary droplet collision depends on numerous parameters, namely, the kinetic properties (droplet velocities, droplet diameter ratio, impact angle) and the physical properties of gas and droplets (droplet liquid, density and viscosity, surface tension, type of gas phase, gas phase pressure and temperature). The boundary line for bouncing, primarily used in numerical studies so far, was derived based on experiments with ethanol droplets by Estrade et al. (1999). However, this theoretical derivation, based on an energy balance, unfortunately neglects viscous dissipation effects. Therefore, the deviations of the predicted bouncing region are pretty large for liquids with higher viscosity or other physical properties. Hence, a data-driven model is proposed in this paper, with new assumptions and definitions, considering the dissipated energy during the collision and the shape changes (i.e., deformation) of the collision complex. For that purpose, two new parameters are introduced in the model, namely a shape factor and an energy conversion rate, both depending on the impact parameter B, which describes the lateral displacement of droplets at a collision. Therefore, the new bouncing model is related to the degree of droplet deformation. The dependence on B could be described by linear correlations with two parameters for slope and intercept. These parameters are correlated with the Ohnesorge number, and polynomial fitting functions were derived with the help of numerous available experiments for different liquids. The upper limit of Ohnesorge numbers in the present study was Oh<0.35. Due to the dependence on the Ohnesorge number, the proposed model very well captures the effect of liquid properties on the bouncing boundary, however, not necessarily the influences of environmental conditions and interface modifications. The model was validated by comparison with numerous available experimental results.

Numerical investigation of gas–liquid two-phase performance in a mixed-flow pump by using a modified drag force model

As key devices to lift deep-sea oil and gas, mixed-flow pumps can transport multiphase flow with high inlet gas volume fraction (IGVF). Performance parameters of mixed-flow pumps may be disturbed by the complex flow and gas–liquid distribution under various conditions that need an accurate two-phase flow numerical methodology for prediction. In this work, the gas–liquid mixed flow performance of a mixed-flow pump is investigated based on the modified drag force model, which considers the bubble deformation at high IGVF. The effects of the IGVF on pressure increment and gas phase distribution are explored. The influences of flow rate and rotational speed are studied as well. Experiments are conducted to obtain performance parameters and gas–liquid distribution images. The results show that performance parameters and gas–liquid distribution predicted in simulations are consistent with those obtained in experiments. The pressure increment of the mixed-flow pump is decreased as the IGVF and flow rate increase. Especially when IGVF increases from 5% to 15%, the pressure increment drops sharply, which is the surging phenomenon. The increased speed may improve the performance. The evolution of gas phase distribution is deeply analyzed to improve the understanding of gas–liquid flow characteristics in mixed-flow pumps.

Electrochemical Pressure Impedance Spectroscopy for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells: Signal Interpretation

Electrochemical pressure impedance spectroscopy (EPIS) is an emerging tool for the diagnosis of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC). It is based on analyzing the frequency response of the cell voltage with respect to an excitation of the gas-phase pressure. Several experimental studies in the past decade have shown the complexity of EPIS signals, and so far there is no agreement on the interpretation of EPIS features. The present study contributes to shed light into the physicochemical origin of EPIS features, by using a combination of pseudo-two-dimensional modeling and analytical interpretation. Using static simulations, the contributions of cathode equilibrium potential, cathode overpotential, and membrane resistance on the quasi-static EPIS response are quantified. Using model reduction, the EPIS responses of individual dynamic processes are predicted and compared to the response of the full model. We show that the EPIS signal of the PEMFC studied here is dominated by the humidifier. The signal is further analyzed by using transfer functions between various internal cell states and the outlet pressure excitation. We show that the EPIS response of the humidifier is caused by an oscillating oxygen molar fraction due to an oscillating mass flow rate.

Evaporation of the tramp element antimony from molten steel under reduced pressure treatment

ABSTRACT The evaporation of antimony (Sb) in molten steel under reduced pressure is investigated with the gas phase pressure of 19–670 Pa, smelting temperature of 1823–1973 K and initial Sb content of 0.033–0.1 wt%. The findings indicate that Sb removal efficiency increases when smelting temperature rises or gas phase pressure decreases. However, the initial Sb content has little effect on the Sb removal. The Sb removal ratio can reach 94.1% within 40 min of treatment. The range of the apparent evaporation rate constant, k Sb, is 0.61 × 10−5 to 29.13 × 10−5 m s−1. The evaporation of Sb is limited by the gas phase mass transfer at 1903 K and 19–670 Pa. Additionally, the apparent activation energy of Sb evaporation, E Sb, is 128 kJ mol−1 at 226 Pa and 1823–1973 K, and the rate of the interfacial reaction severely restricts the evaporation of Sb.