Palm Pressed Fibre Research Articles

Bio-Optimization of Chemical Parameters and Earthworm Biomass for Efficient Vermicomposting of Different Palm Oil Mill Waste Mixtures.

The present study reports mathematical modelling of palm oil mill effluent and palm-pressed fiber mixtures (0% to 100%) during vermicomposting process. The effects of different mixtures with respect to pH, C:N ratio and earthworms have been optimized using the modelling parameters. The results of analysis of variance have established effect of different mixtures of palm oil mill effluent plus palm press fiber and time, under selected physicochemical responses (pH, C:N ratio and earthworm numbers). Among all mixtures, 60% mixture was achieved optimal growth at pH 7.1 using 16.29 C:N ratio in 15 days of vermicomposting. The relationship between responses, time and different palm oil mill waste mixtures have been summarized in terms of regression models. The obtained results of mathematical modeling suggest that these findings have potential to serve a platform for further studies in terms of kinetic behavior and degradation of the biowastes via vermicomposting.

Application of CMC from Oil Palm Biomass as Anti-Redeposition Agent in Laundry Detergent

This research was focused on the utilizing one of palm oil biomass; the palm pressed fibre (PPF) for producing CMC through etherification of cellulose with monochloroacetic acid. The gained CMC fibre based was tested for its potential as anti-redeposition agent. The main objective was to synthesize cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose value added product from oil palm biomass PPF using established standard method of ASTM (American Standard Test Method) and to run quality control studies for all sample such as viscosity of CMC, purity of CMC, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) and Thermal Gravimetric Analyzer (TGA) Analysis. The effect of the CMC as anti-redeposition agent in laundry detergent making was focused as the main potential. The produced CMC was excellent in quality and has imitated the standard CMC with degree of substitution of 0.7 rather than 0.9. By using the TGA analysis, the moisture, volatile, carbon and ash content of the CMC was valued as 14.79%, 40.29%, 8.32% and 17.93%, respectively. 1% CMC added into three (3) different types of detergents against number of wash cycle to avoid soil redeposited back to our laundry load with Yr/Yo represents the whiteness retention in fabric swatches. Five wash cycles with duration of 10 minutes for each cycle was chosen since there was possibility that within minimum cycle of 1-2 detergent performance is still at its best. Detergent A + 1% (w/v) CMC has proved to give significant brightness of 59% better than Detergent A without CMC. CMC produced and reported in this paper has been proved to own such a potential and is expected to achieve interesting quality with better research exposure or maybe through a great pilot plant scale of CMC-antiredeposition-detergent with real dirty clothing-real washing machine test. Keywords. Palm Pressed Fibre; CMC (Carboxymethyl Cellulose); anti-redeposition

Nutritional Support for Small Ruminant Development Based on Oil Palm By-products

Biomass by-products or plant residues from the plantation system would play a crucial role in animal production since the utilization of forages from the underneath tree crops would be less or minimal when the palm oil crop mature. By-products generated from the palm oil system vary, but in relation to the animal production they could be generally categorized into the fibrous by-products and the non-fibrous (concentrate) by-products. Palm oil mill effluent (POME) and palm kernel cake (PKC) are concentrate by-products produced during the processing of palm oil extraction which have great potency to support sheep and goat production, although limiting factors such as contamination of shell and high copper level in PKC need to be considered in their utilization as feed. The fibrous palm oil by-products include oil palm fronds (OPF) and oil palm trunk (OPT) generated from the palm crop trees and oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) and palm pressed fiber (PPF) generated from processing of fresh fruits to yield crude oil. These fibrous by-products cannot meet the metabolisable energy required for high growth rate and for lactation of sheep and goats due to low DM digestibility, low crude protein content, low fermentable carbohydrate and low level of intake. Limited inclusion level in ration should be applied for those by-products to yield an acceptable production level of sheep and goats. Pretreatments (physical, chemical, and biological) gave some improvement in their nutritional qualities, however additional cost of pretreatments need to be considered. In the future, there would be a great challenge for the utilization of those fibrous by-products as animal feed since bioconversion of lignocellulosic materials to products such as chemicals (bioethanol, sugar, and bioplastic), fuels, and organic fertilizers are receiving greater interest. Some comparative advantages of these natural wastes are their relatively low cost, renewable and widespread in nature for used in an industrial operation.

Refining process for production of refined palm-pressed fibre oil

Palm-pressed fibre oil (PPFO) is rich in natural phytonutrients such as carotenes and tocotrienols (vitamin E), which makes it worth further development to enhance its quality. Crude PPFO is currently extracted using solvents without further refining. This study aimed to refine crude PPFO using a combination of processes including degumming, bleaching, and deacidification. Various doses of hot distilled water at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, and 6.0 v/v% were applied during water degumming to remove soluble and hydratable gummy materials in crude PPFO. Degumming with acids at doses ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 wt% were tested to obtain oil with low phosphorus content. Bleaching earth doses ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 wt% were used to absorb trace metals and other impurities. The bleached PPFO was subjected to deacidification to remove free fatty acid (FFA). The optimum refining conditions were using 5.0 v/v% of hot distilled water at 90 °C for 20 min for water degumming, 1.0 wt% of phosphoric acid at 90 °C for 10 min for acid degumming, 0.1 wt% of natural bleaching earth at 105 °C for 15 min during bleaching, and deacidification at 110 °C at 0.1 mtorr. The refined PPFO (RPPFO) showed a 98% reduction of phosphorus content (from 565 ppm to 13±2 ppm) and FFA removal of 97% (from 5.94% to 0.15%), while deterioration of bleachability index (DOBI) increased by 44% (from 1.99 to 2.87±0.17). In addition, RPPFO was rich in carotenoids (1208±23 ppm) and vitamin E (904±8 ppm) that can be developed into high value products. The RPPFO meets the quality specifications of refined, bleached, and deodorised palm oil (RBDPO) while maintaining the heat-sensitive phytonutrients.

Combustion characteristics of palm pressed fibres biochar and sub-bituminous Malaysian coal

In this research, the combustion properties of coal and biochar were investigated and compared to identify the potentiality of biochar for coal replacement application. Biochar is derived from the pyrolysis of palm pressed fibre (PPF) at 400 oC. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to study the combustion profiles of the materials. The biochar and coal were combusted via thermogravimetric analysis from ambient temperature to 800 oC at 10 oCmin-1 of heating rate. From the results, biochar showed the high calorific value of 27.30 MJkg-1compared to that of coal 26.21 MJkg-1. Furthermore, biochar comprised the greater content of carbon and fixed carbon. Although, during combustion, coal releases high heat of 0.052 W than biochar which gave 0.049 W. This reveals that the biochar produced from PPF can be a perfect competitor against coal for heat generation. This finding could assist in promoting the application of biomass as an alternative to fossil fuel.

Effect of Solids Content and Spray-Drying Operating Conditions on the Carotenoids Microencapsulation from Pressed Palm Fiber Oil Extracted with Supercritical CO2

Carotenoids were extracted from pressed palm fiber using supercritical CO2 and microencapsulated by spray-drying with gum Arabic. Twenty-eight tests were made. Emulsions were characterized with respect to droplet size and viscosity. The effects of solid content and spray-drying conditions on moisture, hygroscopicity, microencapsulation efficiency, and powder lipid oxidation were investigated. Particles produced at optimized process (35% of solids, feed flow of 26%, temperature of 166 °C, and atomization air flow of 40 mm) were evaluated for major carotenoids identification and fatty acid profile. Higher solid content led to higher encapsulation efficiency and lower lipid oxidation, which was related to the higher emulsion viscosity and lower droplet size. Increasing atomization air flow and temperature resulted in higher lipid oxidation. Moisture increased and higroscopicity decreased when higher feed flow and lower temperature were used. Microparticles presented high content of monounsaturated fatty acids, α-, β-, and (9Z)-β-carotene and reflected the composition of un-encapsulated oil.

Prediction of Optimal C: N Ratio in Different Palm Oil Mill Waste Mixtures and Its Evaluation of Earthworm Biomass

The oil palm industry has been recognized for its contribution towards economic growth and rapid development, it has also contributed to environmental pollution due to the production of huge quantities of by-products from the oil extraction process. Current research reports prediction of optimal CN ratio of different mixture percentages of palm oil mill effluent (POME) and palm pressed fiber (PPF) namely 100% (only POME), 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 10% and 0% (only PPF). Different mixture percentages with varying initial characters results in different C:N ratio which could affect the earthworm growth and the vermicomposting stability. Therefore, the present research aims to predict the optimal mixture by establishing a 3D base model. The models were generated having an average unified formula using mathematical software Matlab. The results obtained in this study indicates that the 3D polynomial graph can explain the relationship between different POME-PPF concentration with respect to earthworm growth and time showing ideal R2 value of 0.99. The regression analysis showed positive correlation between different mixture percentages and earthworm growth in 50% (r = 0.412), 60% (r = 0.509) and 70% (r = 0.441). Therefore, from the model it can conclude that 60% mixture of POME-PPF is an optimal mixture for the vermicomposting process.

Effects of different vermicompost extracts of palm oil mill effluent and palm-pressed fiber mixture on seed germination of mung bean and its relative toxicity.

Several treatment technologies are available for the treatment of palm oil mill wastes. Vermicomposting is widely recognized as efficient, eco-friendly methods for converting organic waste materials to valuable products. This study evaluates the effect of different vermicompost extracts obtained from palm oil mill effluent (POME) and palm-pressed fiber (PPF) mixtures on the germination, growth, relative toxicity, and photosynthetic pigments of mung beans (Vigna radiata) plant. POME contains valuable nutrients and can be used as a liquid fertilizer for fertigation. Mung bean seeds were sown in petri dishes irrigated with different dilutions of vermicomposted POME-PPF extracts, namely 50, 60, and 70% at varying dilutions. Results showed that at lower dilutions, the vermicompost extracts showed favorable effects on seed germination, seedling growth, and total chlorophyll content in mung bean seedlings, but at higher dilutions, they showed inhibitory effects. The carotenoid contents also decreased with increased dilutions of POME-PPF. This study recommends that the extracts could serve as a good source of fertilizer for the germination and growth enhancement of mung bean seedlings at the recommended dilutions.

Design of alternate solvent for recovery of residual palm oil: simultaneous optimization of process performance with environmental, health and safety aspects

In this work, a computer-aided molecular design (CAMD)-based approach has been developed to design alternative solvents for extracting palm oil from palm pressed fibre (PPF). PPF is a by-product from palm oil milling process produced during the extraction of crude palm oil from fresh fruit bunches. It is noted that the oil that found in PPF consists of high concentration of carotenoids; therefore, palm oil industries are trying to recover the residual oil in PPF. Hexane is conventionally used as a solvent to extract PPF. However, hexane has high boiling point which leads to significant degradation of carotene during solvent recovery. Besides, hexane is considered as a toxic chemical; thus, the extracted oil cannot be used in food applications. In order to overcome the limitations of hexane, this work presents a systematic approach to generate alternative solvents with desirable attributes for PPF oil extraction via CAMD with the integration of safety and health aspects. In this work, diffusivity is defined as a key parameter to evaluate the solvent functionality because the solvent must diffuse through the fibrous matrix to solubilize trapped oil. The safety and health aspects were assessed by implementing disjunctive programming to discretize the properties for allocation of subindex scores. The developed algorithm can trade-off the process and environmental, health and safety (EHS) performances and identify alternative solvents which improve EHS performance compare with hexane.

Material flow analysis for resource management towards resilient palm oil production

Biomass waste generated from palm oil mill can be considered not only as the feedstock of renewable energy but also as the nutrient-rich resources to produce organic fertilizer. This study explored the appropriate resource management towards resilient palm oil production by applying material flow analysis. This study was conducted based on two palm oil mills in Lampung, Indonesia. The results showed that the empty fruit bunch (EFB) has the largest potential in terms of amount and energy among the biomass waste. The results also showed that the palm oil mills themselves had already self-managed their energy consumption thatwas obtained from palm kernel shell and palm press fiber. Finally, this study recommended the several utilization options of EFB for improvement of soil sustainability to contribute towards resilient palm oil production.

Solid-state fermentation of co-products from palm oil processing: Production of lipase and xylanase and effects on chemical composition

The palm oil industry generates large amounts of lignocellulosic co-products. Palm kernel cake (PKC) and palm pressed fibre (PPF) have nutritional limitations as ingredients in animal feed, and are therefore little used. Solid-state fermentation (SSF) is one alternative treatment to improve the nutritional value of these co-products and to increase their possible use, through the production of enzymes such as lipases and xylanases. These enzymes can reduce the contents of undesirable compounds, such as lipids, and degrade some components of the fibres to improve the digestibility of these co-products. The fungi Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus awamori were able to grow in PKC/PPF (40/60 w/w) culture medium by SSF, and to produce xylanase and lipase. A. niger showed the highest lipase activity (20.7 U g−1) at 72 h. A. awamori higher xylanase activity than the other fungi at all culture periods, reaching a maximum activity of 134.2 U g−1 at 72 h. The unfermented co-products contained 7.49% lipids and 7.38% non-fibrous carbohydrates (NFC). Lipase produced by these fungi during SSF reduced the lipid content by 36%, 40% and 45% for A. oryzae, A. awamori and A. niger, respectively. The production of xylanases by SSF probably increased the NFC contents by up to 64%. Fermented solids with A. oryzae and A. awamori had the highest levels of NFC, 20.3% and 13.94%, respectively, which improved the nutritional value of these co-products.

Integrating Safety and Health Indexes in Computer-Aided Molecular Design Under Property Prediction Uncertainty

Computer-Aided Molecular Design (CAMD) is a powerful tool for designing promising molecules with the targeted properties. Besides properties, the safety and health aspects must also be considered during design stage to ensure the synthesized molecules do not cause much harm. The molecules are assessed by several safety and health parameters, which are measured using physicochemical properties that can be estimated via property prediction methods. Each parameter/sub-index is allocated with a penalty score based on the property to represent the hazard level of molecules. However, uncertainty in the prediction models can adversely affect the accuracy of scores. The main highlight of this paper is to manage the effect of uncertainty on the safety and health sub-indexes, by improving the scores at the uncertain region for enhanced measurement of molecular hazards. A case study on solvent design for carotenoids extraction from Palm Pressed Fiber (PPF) has been considered with the proposed methodology.

Bioremediation of palm industry wastes using vermicomposting technology: its environmental application as green fertilizer

Several technologies are being applied for treatment of palm oil mill wastes. Among them, the biological treatments (vermicomposting) have widely been recognized as one of the most efficient and eco-friendly methods for converting organic waste materials into valuable products. The present study focuses on vermicomposting of acidic palm oil mill effluent (POME) mixed with the palm pressed fibre (PPF) which are found difficult to decompose in the environment. The industrial waste (POME) was vermicomposted using Lumbricus rubellus under laboratory conditions for a period of 45 days. A significant improvement in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content was monitored during vermicomposting process. In addition, the decline in C:N ratio of vermicompost (up to 17.20 ± 0.60) reflects the degree of stabilization of POME–PPF mixture. Different percentages of the vermicompost extract obtained from POME–PPF mixture were also examined for the germination of mung bean (Vigna radiata) seed. The results showed that 75% vermicompost extract demonstrated better performance for the seed germination. On the basis of significant findings, POME–PPF mixture can be successfully used as a feeding material for the earthworms, while on the other hand, it can also be used as a cost-effective fertilizer for the germination and the proper growth of mung bean.

Recycling of palm oil industrial wastes using vermicomposting technology: its kinetics study and environmental application.

The present paper reports management of palm oil mill effluent (POME) mixed with palm-pressed fibre (PPF) POME-PPF mixture using eco-friendly, cost-effective vermicomposting technology. Vermicomposting of POME-PPF was performed to examine the optimal POME-PPF ratio with respect to the criteria of earthworm biomass and to evaluate the decomposition of carbon and nitrogen in different percentages of POME-PPF mixtures. Chemical parameters such as TOC, N, P and K contents were determined to achieve optimal decomposition of POME-PPF. On this basis, the obtained data of 50% POME-PPF mixture demonstrated more significant results throughout the experiment after addition of the earthworms. However, 60 and 70% mixtures found significant only in the last stages of the vermicomposting process. The decomposition rate in terms of -ln (CNt/CNo) showed that the 50% mixture has higher decomposition rate as compared to the 60 and 70% (k50%=0.0498day-1). The vermicomposting extracts (50, 60 and 70%) of POME-PPF mixtures were also tested to examine the growth of mung bean (Vigna radiata). It was found that among different extract dilutions, 50% POME-PPF vermicompost extract provided longer root and shoot length of mung bean. The present study concluded that the 50% mixture of POME-PPF could be chosen as the optimal mixture for vermicomposting in terms of both decomposition rate and fertilizer value of the final compost. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Hydrolysis, Detoxification and Alcoholic Fermentation of Hemicellulose Fraction from Palm Press Fiber

The palm press fiber, resulting from the extraction of oil from the fruit of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is an abundant agro-industrial co-product with a potential for development of biorefineries. This study evaluated the use of the hemicellulose fraction contained in the palm press fiber as a source of sugars for the production of bioethanol by Scheffersomyces stipitis. The optimal condition for hemicellulose hydrolysis, determined by response surface methodology, utilized 30% of dry biomass in 5% H2SO4 at 121 °C for 60 min, and resulted in removal of 88.4% of this polysaccharide. The soluble fraction recovered after the acid pretreatment, called hemicellulosic hydrolyzate, contained 83 g L−1 of reducing sugars. The hydrolyzate also contained 12 g L−1 of acetic acid, 489 mg L−1 of furfural and 46 mg L−1 of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. The detoxification of the hydrolyzate with activated charcoal, overliming and a combination thereof was evaluated for removal of unwanted byproducts. The best detoxification treatment reduced the concentrations of phenolic compounds and furfural present in the hemicellulosic hydrolyzate by 96% and 99%, respectively. S. stipitis NRRLY 7124 and S. stipitis CBS 6054 were tested for the fermentation of the hydrolyzate. The highest yield of ethanol, 0.33 gethanol gsugar −1, was obtained with the NRRLY 7124 strain in the fermentation of the hydrolyzate detoxified by overliming. An estimated production of 12.1 L of ethanol per ton of palm press fiber derived solely from the hemicellulosic fraction was achieved.

Valorization of Residual Biomasses from the Agri-Food Industry by Subcritical Water Hydrolysis Assisted by CO2

In this work, four residual biomasses from the food industry (coconut husk, defatted grape seeds, sugar cane bagasse, and pressed palm fiber) were subjected to subcritical water hydrolysis assisted by CO2 (SubWH + CO2) with the objective of producing fermentable sugars. Hydrolysis kinetics were determined using a semi-batch unit equipped with a 50 mL reactor. The process was conducted at 250 °C for 30 min under 20 MPa. Total reducing sugars recovered using SubWH + CO2 were (wet basis): 13.5% for coconut husk, 10% for defatted grape seeds, 13.2% for sugar cane bagasse, and 11.2% for pressed palm fiber. For coconut husk and defatted grape seeds, adding CO2 increased total reducing sugars by 15 and 56%, respectively. For sugar cane bagasse and pressed palm fiber, adding CO2 to the process did not alter total reducing sugars recovered. In all cases, the byproduct yield increased when adding CO2 to the process.

Computer Aided Molecular Design for alternative sustainable solvent to extract oil from palm pressed fibre

Palm pressed fibre (PPF) is one of the by-products from palm oil milling process which is conventionally burned as fuel to produce energy to support the milling operation. PPF typically contains 5–6% of residual palm oil, which can be further recovered as by-product before using it as fuel in boiler. Therefore, it has propagated great interest in developing technologies to extract the residual oil from PPF. Based on the currently available technologies, hexane cold extraction is the most established method for recovering the residual oil. However, the extracted residual oil via hexane is not suitable for food applications due to the toxicity of hexane. Besides, the low recovery of carotene from the residual oil is another major concern of using hexane as solvent in the cold extraction. Therefore, there is a need to identify an alternative solvent to recover the residual oil from PPF. In this work, Computer Aided Molecular Design (CAMD) technique is adapted to identify alternative solvents which possess the most desirable attributes for this application. This application of CAMD is unique because it is important to optimize the physical properties of the potential solvent along with safety and health attributes in order to use in food industries. Moreover, the safety and health indexes depend on the physical properties of the final solvent and the abrupt changes of these indexes must be tracked simultaneously with the changes in properties. The proposed approach can identify alternative solvents that extract residual oil from PPF with the highest retention of carotene. To trade off the optimisation objective of the recovery of carotene and total health and safety impacts, fuzzy optimisation based approach for solvent design has been developed.

Bioenergy Potential of Under-Utilized Solid Waste Residues from Oil Palm Mills in Nigeria

This study estimated bioelectricity potentials of under-utilized oil palm processing solid wastes (chaff, empty fruit bunch, palm press fibre and palm kernel shell) in Nigeria. The potential challenges of bio-power production from these solid wastes were also evaluated. Quantitative approach was employed for data generation. Historical data study of oil palm growth rate between 2004 to 2013 was used and projections at three scenarios (high, low and current status) were made. The findings showed that bioelectricity from total possible gatherable under-utilized oil palm processing solid wastes in Nigeria were 3.234 to 5.175 MWh in 2004, which could have reached 3.796 to 6.073 MWh in 2013. Based on projections at high, low and current growth rate scenarios, 5.728 to 9.165 MWh (high growth rate), 4.720 to 7.536 MWh (low growth rate) and 4.242 to 6.787 MWh (current growth rate) of electricity at efficiency of 80% (for combustion), 65% (for pyrolysis) and 50% (for gasification) could be achieved by 2029. After considering all the challenges associated with each type of conversion process, only 40% of these values are attainable. The study identified technological, policy/political and economic framework as potential challenge of bioelectricity generation in Nigeria. Hence the study concludes by suggesting means of overcoming the hurdles under Nigeria setting.

Performance of Lactating Buffaloes Fed Palm Press Fibre Based Rations

Sixteen lactating buffaloes, divided randomly into four equal groups, were fed rations based on untreated paddy straw (R1), untreated palm press fibre (PPF; R2), urea-treated PPF along with concentrate mixture (R3) and urea-treated PPF with green fodder and concentrate mixture (R4) to study their nutrient utilization and production performance. The digestibility coefficients of CP, cellulose and hemicelluloses were significantly (P<0.01) higher by 6.44, 7.18 and 0.97; 13.01, 12.89 and 0.59, 10.68, 16.16 and 8.70 and 17.51, 16.16 and 8.71 percentage units, respectively, in buffaloes fed R3 and R4 as compared to R1 and R2. There was no significant difference in nutrient digestibility between R3 and R4. The DCP and TDN values of R3 and R4 were significantly (P<0.01) higher than paddy straw and untreated PPF (R1 and R2) based rations. Milk yield of lactating buffaloes did not differ significantly among the four groups. The fat and total solids contents were significantly (P<0.05) higher in milk of buffaloes fed with R3 and R4 as compared to R1 and R2. However, there were no significant differences in fat and total solids of milk produced by buffaloes fed on urea treated PPF containing rations (R3 vs R4). It is concluded that urea-treated PPF can replace paddy straw completely without affecting productivity of lactating buffaloes. The cost of feed/kg milk production was lower in rations containing urea-treated PPF than untreated PPF indicating that urea treatment reduces the investment incurred in concentrate mixture.

The Effect of γ‐APS Coupling Agent on High Density Polyethylene/Acrylonitrile‐Butadiene Rubber/Palm Pressed Fibre Composites

The effect of γ‐aminopropyltriethoxysilane (γ‐APS) as coupling agent on the properties of High‐Density Polyethylene (HDPE)/Acrylonitrile‐butadiene rubber (NBR)/Palm Pressed Fiber (PPF) composite were studied. The composites were melt mixed using heated two roll mill at 180°C and speed of 15 rpm with six different loading (100/0/10, 80/20/10, 70/30/10, 60/40/10, 50/50/10, and 40/60/10). The effects of γ‐APS on mechanical, morphological, and chemical properties were investigated. The results showed that the treatment of γ‐APS has improved the tensile properties, morphological, and chemical properties. This may due to the good adhesion of PPF filler with HDPE/NBR matrices in the presence of γ‐APS coupling agent. Fourier Transform Infra‐red chemical analysis proves formation of Si–O–Si bond between PPF filler and HDPE/NBR matrices were responsible for this improvement. J. VINYL ADDIT. TECHNOL., 24:E71–E76, 2018. © 2016 Society of Plastics Engineers