Conservation Of Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Multidimensional assessment of soil conservation ecosystem services and multiscale analysis of influencing mechanisms

Soil conservation ecosystem services (SCESs) are related to food production, safety of residents, water quality, and public health. However, the traditional assessment framework only focuses on a single dimension of SCESs, and the efficiency and development trends are often overlooked. A multidimensional assessment framework was established to assess SCESs in terms of the total output, efficiency, development trend temporally and spatially. Additionally, the traditional perspective of influencing mechanism analysis was expanded to include spatial heterogeneity. The influencing strength and distance were quantitatively revealed at pixel resolution. The results indicate that (1) the SCESs in Minnesota were generally improved from 1998 to 2018. (2) 70% and 78% of the counties experienced low-output and low-efficiency problems, respectively. (3) The Twin Cities constituted the degradation cores of SCESs in Minnesota. (4) The cropland and forestland proportions and rainfall were the top three influencing factors, causing SCES changes of 0.9959%, 0.4937%, and 0.1536%, respectively, for every 1% change in these factors. (5) According to the influence scopes, the soil organic carbon (SOC) content, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and soil silt content were classified as long-distance factors, the soil sand content, slope and soil clay content were categorized as moderate-distance factors, and the remaining variables were identified as short-distance factors. (6) The influencing factors imposed both positive and negative influences on the SCESs, and attenuation or alteration of the adverse influences on SCESs through specific human interventions is a very promising approach.

Ecosystem carrying and occupancy capacity on a beach in southwestern Spain

The number of tourists visiting coastal areas of the world is increasing every year, often resulting in negative impacts on the coastal environment. This paper proposes the analysis of ecosystem carrying and occupancy capacity (ECOC) as a useful tool for beach management. On the one hand, it considers the number of users that coincide simultaneously on a beach, including their temporal and spatial distribution and, on the other hand, it assesses the vulnerability of the ecosystem services (ES) present in the area. The combination of these two variables provides managers with integrated knowledge of the environmental and social elements that interact within their management area. The objective of this study was to carry out an analysis of ECOC on the beach of La Barrosa, located in southwestern Spain, during the summer season (July and August) of the years 2017 and 2020. To this end, a methodology was employed that can be applied in a generalized manner regardless of the physical-natural, socio-economic and cultural characteristics of the area. The analysis consisted of four phases: (1) characterization and zoning of the study area; (2) identification, evaluation, and vulnerability of ecosystem services; (3) analysis of the distribution and occupation of users; (4) calculation of the ecosystem carrying and occupancy capacity. Different ECOC values were recorded during the study months and during the same day, due to the nature of the beach and the behavior of the users. ECOC levels were observed ranging from “extreme overload” to “adequate load”. The results indicate that La Barrosa beach supports high pressure during the summer season derived from a large influx of users and the installation of the required services, which translate into impacts on the ES. We concluded that the existence and conservation of ES at La Barrosa beach play an essential role in the development of the tourism sector in which the municipality is economically sustained. For this reason, it is essential to carry out coastal management based on the study of the trend and state of the ES, determining their vulnerability and monitoring them over time, in order to promote sustainable tourism.

Amending soil with insect exuviae improves herbivore tolerance, pollinator attraction and seed yield of Brassica nigra plants

To promote circularity in agriculture, the residual –streams from the production of insects as feed and food, such as insect exuviae (moulted skins), can be a sustainable novel organic soil amendment for crop production. Organic soil amendments can influence soil composition by providing nutrients and stimulating the growth of beneficial microorganisms. Soil composition significantly impacts plant growth and resistance against herbivores. However, little is known about the effect of soil composition on flower visitors and seed production. Here, black soldier fly (BSF; Hermetia illucens) exuviae was added to soil to investigate the effects on plant growth, plant resistance against two insect herbivores, and the consequences for attraction of pollinators and seed yield. Brassica nigra seeds were sown in field soil or in field soil mixed with powdered BSF exuviae. Three-week-old plants and the soil of each pot were planted in a common garden. The effects on vegetative and flower traits, interactions with flower visitors and seed yield were quantified. In addition, the performance of the leaf-chewing larvae of Pieris brassicae and the piercing-sucking aphid Brevicoryne brassicae were assessed. Brassica nigra plants grown on soil amended with BSF exuviae showed increased growth, had more flowers and flower visitors, and higher seed production. Herbivory neither affected number of flowers nor seed production, suggesting tolerance and compensatory growth responses to herbivory compared to plants growing in soil without the addition of BSF exuviae. After five weeks fewer aphids were found on plants growing in amended soil. Our findings show that BSF exuviae added to soil can positively affect tolerance to herbivory and seed production of B. nigra, an insect-pollinated plant species. Moreover, adding insect exuviae as soil amendment in the field benefits plant-pollinator mutualism and seed yield even during herbivore attack in the field. Use of by-products from insect production as soil amendment can contribute to sustainable agricultural practices along with the conservation of ecosystem services.

Change in land use and economic dynamics of the Ibirapuitã River Environmental Protection Area of the Brazilian Pampa biome

This study analyzed the change in land use in the Environmental Protection Area (EPA) of the Ibirapuitã River in the Pampa biome, Brazil, and its impact on the economic dynamics of the region. The analysis had a descriptive character with a quantitative approach. Methodologically, we constructed a database with macroeconomic and agricultural production variables of the four municipalities that compose the EPA Territory, including remote sensing images to assess the change in land use between 2000 and 2020. Moreover, regression models were used to determine the growth trends in agricultural production and analyze the impact of land-use change on the economic dynamics of the territory. The results indicated a shift in land use in the EPA territorry, resulting from transforming natural pastures into grain cropping systems. Profitability-based production is one of the main factors for change in land use. The expansion of soybean production positively impacted the economic variables of the territory. However, this EPA of the Ibirapuitã was essential to ensure conservation use of the region during this period, maintaining the areas of natural pasture in the biome. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a representative public policy for the Pampa biome that offers incentives and encourages the conservation of ecosystem services in agricultural exploitation.

FRESF model: An ArcGIS toolbox for rapid assessment of the supply, demand, and flow of flood regulation ecosystem services

• An ArcGIS toolbox and FRESF model can measures flood related indices. • It is a practical tool for ecosystem services conservation planning. • The study provided here show the usability and credibility of proposed toolbox. River floods are globally the most damaging and costliest natural disasters. The functions of nonstructural flood mitigation measures (e.g., water retention by vegetation and soil) provide critical regulation ecosystem services to human beings. For example, the Sponge Cities are national watershed management projects in China to increase the nonstructural flood regulation services, aiming to enable the urban ecosystem to absorb, infiltrate, and retain storm water to mitigate pluvial flooding. Decision-makers need to acquire critical areas for the supply, demand, and flow of flood regulation ecosystem services, which would affect the delivery of services and the distribution of any benefits among stakeholders. However, relatively few empirical studies present this information. One reason is the lack of appropriate methods and tools for a rapid assessment of flood regulation ecosystem services that do not require substantial resources or rely heavily on hydrological process data. This article presents the Flood Regulation Ecosystem Service Flow (FRESF) model to address this gap. FRESF is an open-access and open-source ArcGIS script toolbox for an integrated evaluation of flood regulation ecosystem services' supply, demand, and flow. Based on a land surface process model and a generic framework quantifying ecosystem services flow, FRESF provides a rapid and serviceable assessment framework for the relevant ecosystem services at a relatively low cost and effort. The validation results suggest that the outputs are moderately consistent with the actual flood conditions, compared with the flood disaster of the Yangtze River in 2020. Its open codes and flexible inputs imply that ecologists, planners, decision-makers, and developers involved in ecosystem services would have the opportunity to test and apply the FRESF model in several contexts and even contribute further improvements.

The role of situated knowledge and values in reshaping payment for hydrological services programs in Veracruz, Mexico: An actor-oriented approach

Payment for ecosystem services (PES) is a prominent neoliberal, market-based environmental policy tool to promote conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services (ES) that has been applied since the late 1990s in both industrialized and developing countries. Recent studies have documented how PES programs do not actually function as market-based programs, and that they are often modified on the ground by local actors. Adding to this literature, our study uses an actor-oriented approach to examine how local actors in Veracruz, Mexico respond to and make changes to payment for hydrological services (PHS) programs, a prominent PES program used to address water quality and quantity issues. Drawing on interviews with 15 institutional actors and 58 landowners, we investigate how these actors challenge and modify these programs to make them more responsive to local socioecological conditions and needs. Our argument is that situated knowledge about land uses and socioecological conditions, and norms of equity and fairness, play central roles in empowering social actors to alternately adopt, contest, and re-shape PHS programs to better meet local conditions and needs.

A hybrid scale to relate natural and built environments: a pragmatic approach to sustainable cities

ABSTRACT Urbanization is an irreversible and dynamic process which affects the availability and quality of ecosystem services (ESs). The link between balanced urban growth and ESs is critical for sustainable urban development. The study followed pluralist approach for evaluating and comparing the land-cover-based economic assessment of sustainable, moderately sustainable, and unsustainable cities. The artificial intelligence-based future land cover changes were evaluated using geographic future land use simulation software with geographic information system. A case-specific modification of value coefficients for computing ecosystem service value (ESV) was applied on case cities. A workable scale was developed by exploring relation of ESs and built-up of three extreme cases. The scale has different combinations of ESs and built-up from worst to best scenario with related ESV changes for optimal utilization of land. The scale helped to assess the spatial resource and natural capital balance of any area. The results showed that the ideal ratio of ESs and built-up density range for balanced sustainable development is between 1.35 and 3.64 with ESVs between INR 10.00 million/hectare and INR 8.45 million/hectare, respectively. On applying the scale, the results showed that only 25% of the city peripheral area comes under ideal range. The study will help urban planners in conservation of ESs with economic development for promoting sustainable urban development.

Lessons learned and challenges for environmental management in Colombia: The role of communication, education and participation strategies

Environmental management has increasingly focused on promoting social engagement in biodiversity and ecosystem services conservation as a way to foster sustainability. However, a critical challenge that still remains is the adequate implementation of strategies of communication, education, and participation (CEPA) oriented to reconnect the social and ecological dimensions in the systems. This study analyzed the main features and types of CEPA implemented by the Colombian Regional Autonomous Corporations in environmental management projects that consider ecosystem services. We found a variety of CEPA focused on a wide range of stakeholders. Communication and education were the most frequently implemented in the projects. Within communication, spreading information about the projects was the most common, while education focused on instrumental training of local communities. Participation, the less frequently implemented, mainly aimed to ensure government and decision-makers involved in the initial phases of the projects. We conclude that there is a need to increase and improve education strategies in conservation projects to make decisions based on critical and reflective thinking, and foster the engagement of a broader set of stakeholders in the processes.

The impact of shade tree species identity on coffee pests and diseases

The multifunctional role of shade trees for conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services in natural forests and agroforests is well documented, yet we lack insights into the impact of shade tree species identity on pest and disease dynamics on agroforestry crops such as coffee and cacao, and its implications for management. We conducted two surveys on the impact of shade tree species identity and canopy cover on pests, diseases and a fungal hyperparasite on Arabica coffee in southwestern Ethiopia, which is one of the areas of origin of Arabica coffee. One survey was in a commercial plantation, and the other along a management gradient from only little managed coffee growing in the natural forest to intensively managed commercial plantations. To link these findings to current shade tree selection criteria, we complemented these surveys by interviews with farmers and managers. Shade tree species identity left a weak imprint on insect pest levels, and insect pests levels differed strongly in the strength and direction of their response to canopy cover. In contrast to the insect pests, the incidence of coffee leaf rust and its hyperparasite, as well as coffee berry disease, differed among shade tree species, with particularly high levels of coffee leaf rust and the hyperparasite underneath the canopy of the shade trees Acacia abyssinica and Croton macrostachyus, and coffee berry disease underneath the canopy of Acacia abyssinica and Polyscias fulva. Smallholder farmers used many criteria for selecting shade trees, such as leaf traits and competition for soil moisture, but low priority is given to the effect of shade tree species identity on pests and diseases. Our findings help to understand spatial variation in pest and disease dynamics in natural forests and agroforests, and may inform the selection of shade tree species by coffee producers and thereby contribute to ecologically-informed pest and disease management. Importantly, our finding highlight the potential for using tree identity for the sustainable management of pests and diseases, with relevance for global agroforestry systems.

Slash-and-burn in karst regions lowers soil gross nitrogen (N) transformation rates and N-turnover

Slash-and-burn is a common practice in the subtropical karst areas of southwest China, as well as in other places around the world, to prepare forest land for agricultural plantations. Understanding the effect of slash-and-burn practice on soil nitrogen (N) supply capacity is critical for the preservation of ecosystem services including long-term plant productivity. This is of particular relevance in mountainous karst regions with thin calcareous soils characterized by high pH, high calcium (Ca), and high soil loss risk. In this study, a 15N tracing approach was employed to quantify the effect of slash-and-burn on gross N-transformation rates and the mineralization-immobilization turnover (MIT) in soils from subtropical karst regions half-year after the burning, right before the agricultural cultivation began. Soil samples were collected from burned and nearby control sites (woodland). Compared to the control sites, the contents of soil organic carbon, total N, and Ca were lower in the burned sites, while no significant difference was observed in soil enzyme activities. The rates of mineralization of organic N to ammonium (NH4+), NH4+ adsorption and release, NH4+ oxidation to nitrate (NO3–) (i.e., autotrophic nitrification, ONH4), and microbial NO3– immobilization were significantly lower in burned sites, suggesting that slash-and-burn has a negative effect on MIT in karst regions. The mean residence times of inorganic N were 4.33 ± 0.53 d-1 for NH4+ and 6.83 ± 1.76 d-1 for NO3– in burned soil, which is remarkably higher than the control soil (0.77 ± 0.08 d-1 for NH4+ and 2.47 ± 0.83 d-1 for NO3–), indicating decreased N turnover after slash-and-burn. Abundances of bacteria and fungi, reflected by 16 s rRNA and ITS gene analyses, were not different between burned and control sites, suggesting that microbial community composition and activity, rather than the population size, controls the microbial-modulated N transformations. Owning to the slower NH4+ and NO3– turnover and reduced soil N transformation rates, we conclude slash-and-burn practice significantly lowers soil inorganic N supply capacity, leading to remarkably reduced soil inorganic N content, especially for NO3– (from 59.9 ± 8.67 mg N kg−1 to 44.1 ± 1.86 mg N kg−1), which may further restrict the efficiency of agricultural exploitation. Thus, we recommend that the follow-up agricultural activities after slash-and-burn practice need to take this into account in addition to erosion control and nutrient conservation measures.

Evaluating the conservation priority of key biodiversity areas based on ecosystem conditions and anthropogenic threats in rapidly urbanizing areas

The rapid and intense development in highly urbanized regions presents huge challenges to the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Progress on incorporating ecosystem conditions and anthropogenic threats into conservation assessments for key biodiversity areas (KBAs) in highly urbanized regions is still insufficient. To address this, this paper conducted an assessment of conservation priorities for key biodiversity areas in highly urbanized regions by integrating anthropogenic threats with ecosystem conditions. Taking 8 KBAs in the Guangdong - Hong Kong - Macao Greater Bay Area of China (GBA) as an example, this study found that the ecosystem condition of most of KBAs remains stable from 2000 to 2020. We found that the ecosystem conditions in most KBAs have not been negatively affected by anthropogenic threats. It is worth noting that Shenzhen Wutongshan (SZW) is the only KBA that faces a significant increase in anthropogenic threats with a significant decline in ecosystem condition during the past two decades. Overall, SZW is the highest priority KBA that needs to reduce the negative effects of anthropogenic threats and strengthen ecosystem conservation in the future.

Methodological Strategy for the Conservation of Ecosystem Services

Ecosystem Services (ES) are the benefits that human beings receive from nature and that contribute to improving the quality of life. However, at present, precisely the human activities through which ES are used are generating negative impacts on ecosystems that hinder their provision. It is a vicious circle that needs to be corrected. To do so, this article, the result of postdoctoral research, proposes an ES sustainability strategy that includes a methodology to assess its status and generates actions to follow in order to contribute to the recovery and conservation of natural resources. The methodology implies identifying the ES of the place of interest, measuring a series of indicators constructed to be applied at home or in the community by the inhabitants of the territory, making an evaluation of them and, according to the results, actions to be followed are generated. In addition, an application is presented to Tocotá, a village in the municipality of Dagua in Valle del Cauca (Colombia) that is characterized by the visit of tourists attracted by the biodiversity of the place, but whose natural resources are being compromised by the activity that it has become the main economic resource of the community.The application of the methodological strategy indicates that the state of the ecosystem services in Tocotá is acceptable, although it is not in bad conditions, actions are suggested for its improvement. This methodological strategy allows identifying the state of ecosystem services in Tocotá, but it is replicable to hydrographic basins with similar conditions.

Effectiveness of the Qilian Mountain Nature Reserve of China in Reducing Human Impacts

The management effectiveness of protected areas plays a key role in biodiversity and ecosystem services conservation. We evaluated the effectiveness of Qilian Mountain Nature Reserve (QMNR) in reducing human footprint (HF). Four dominant human activity factors, including population density, land use, road distribution, and night light, were incorporated for HF mapping. Comparisons of the HF value between inside and outside QMNR and its four functional zones were conducted. The results show that both the HF inside and outside of QMNR were increasing, but the difference between them was increasing, indicating partial management effectiveness. The north part of the central reserve has a good effect in reducing human impacts, while the effectiveness was poor at both ends of the reserve. The HF value of the most strictly managed core and buffer zones increased by 10.50 and 6.68%, respectively, for 2010–2020. The QMNR was effective in controlling population density and land use, but ineffective in reducing road construction, mining, and construction of hydropower facilities.

Human choices, slope and vegetation productivity determine patterns of traditional alpine summer grazing

Grazing behaviour influences animal productivity and the conservation of grassland ecosystem services. We used GPS tracking and remote sensing (NDVI index) to monitor the grazing patterns of lactating cows on the ‘Malga Ombretta’ summer farm (1,957 m asl) in the Dolomites, eastern Italian Alps, from 5th July to 5th August 2018. The pasture area (35 ha) was grazed by a mixed herd of Simmental and Alpine grey cows (stocking density = 0.6 LU/ha) under traditional management: each morning the farmer led the cows to graze in a selected sub-area of pasture, and during the afternoon he left them free to graze unrestricted until they returned to the barn for the night. GPS positions were collected every minute from 9 Simmental and 4 Alpine Grey cows with low milk production during the time they were outdoors. The farmer’s choice of where to drive the herd to graze in the morning determined the distances the cows walked/day, which varied from 2.0 to 8.9 km, and favoured the use of higher and steeper areas that the cows tended otherwise to avoid. When free in the afternoon, the cows selected areas with higher NDVI values than those selected by the farmer in the morning, and Alpine Grey cows used slightly higher slopes and altitudes than Simmental cows, suggesting better adaptation to mountain pastures. The study revealed highly heterogenous grazing patterns dependent on multiple factors that can be assessed at fine temporal and spatial scales using GPS and remote sensing technologies to improve grazing management. HIGHLIGHTS Daily distances walked and grazing patterns were influenced differently by the farmer’s decisions and the animals’ choices in response to environmental features. The NDVI index of vegetation productivity suggested that cows grazed more productive areas when free than when driven by the farmer. GPS tracking and remote sensing shed light on how human and animal choices regarding grazing are influenced by environmental features.

Applying best available techniques and best environmental practices to preserve ecosystem services

The study offers an analysis of two concepts used for reducing negative environmental impact: best available techniques and best environmental practices. The concept of best available techniques has been widely used for a long time and has proven to be an effective tool for implementing various regulatory mechanisms. Best environmental practices, on the other hand, have not been known for very long and their application is not yet widespread. Best environmental practices are only applied voluntarily; this fact distinguishes them from best available techniques which in most cases are regulated by legal acts. However, it would be a mistake to assume that best environmental practices are not particularly important within the framework of environmental regulation. On the contrary, their role is increasing, because any additional tools can not only help modernise industrial manufacturing processes, but also improve the image of the enterprise. The relevance of the study stems from the need to find solutions to preserve and restore ecosystem services. The concepts in question can serve as a framework for preventing further degradation of ecosystem services. The study has reviewed normative legal acts of the Russian Federation along with papers and monographs by researchers or experts in the field.

Irrigation modulates entomopathogenic nematode community and its soil food web in olive groves under different agricultural managements

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are biological control agents distributed worldwide in natural and agricultural soils. Recent evidence supports the hypothesis that stable rhizospheres of perennial crops can favor the occurrence of EPNs. However, different agricultural management practices can modulate their natural distribution in agroecosystems, hence should be considered in conservation biological control programs to support as high as possible native EPN populations. Cultivated olive (Olea europaea subsp. europaea), originally from the Mediterranean Basin, is a key perennial crop susceptible to a diverse range of arthropod pests that account for their life with at least one soil inhabitant stage. In this study, we investigated, for the first time, the occurrence of EPNs and associated soil organisms in olive groves managed with different practices. We surveyed 89 commercial olive groves located in Andalusia (Southern Spain) and differently handled for pest management (conventional vs. organic), soil management (tilling vs. cover cropping), and irrigation regime (rain feed vs. drip-irrigation). By using species-specific primers-probe sets and quantitative real-time PCR approaches, we screened the occurrence of nine species of EPNs, five free-living nematodes (FLNs), and six nematophagous fungi (NF). We found EPNs in 23.6% of the sites, identifying only two EPN species: Steinernema feltiae (15.7%) and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (7.9%). Pest and soil management did not affect EPN abundance, but drip irrigation increased their occurrence (P < 0.025). On the contrary, we recorded lower FLN numbers in irrigated groves (P = 0.003), particularly for Oscheius tipulae and Pristionchus maupasi. Regarding NF, both organic management (P < 0.001) and drip irrigation (P < 0.035) enhanced their abundance. Four abiotic explanatory variables (extractable P, clay content, elevation, and precipitation) explained 85.6% of the EPN, FLN, and NF species variation in multivariate analysis. Overall, drip irrigation in the olive groves enhanced the EPN community but also NF growth, natural enemies of nematodes. Additional studies are required to determine the best combination of alternative strategies that will enhance a balanced soil biota in olive groves in Mediterranean regions and other areas where this crops is cultivated that enable conservation ecosystem services, such as those provided by the EPNs.

Correction: Sustainable landscaping programs in the United States and their potential to encourage conservation and support ecosystem services

Correction: Sustainable landscaping programs in the United States and their potential to encourage conservation and support ecosystem services

Engaging at the science-policy interface as an early-career researcher: experiences and perceptions in biodiversity and ecosystem services research

ABSTRACT Effective knowledge exchange at science-policy interfaces (SPIs) can foster evidence-informed policy-making through the integration of a wide range of knowledge inputs. This is especially crucial for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services (ES), human well-being and sustainable development. Early-career researchers (ECRs) can contribute significantly to knowledge exchange at SPIs. Recognizing that, several capacity building programs focused on sustainability have been introduced recently. However, little is known about the experiences and perceptions of ECRs in relation to SPIs. Our study focused on SPI engagement of ECRs who conduct research on biodiversity and ES, as perceived and experienced. Specifically, we addressed ‘motivations’, ‘barriers’ and ‘opportunities and ‘benefits’. A total of 145 ECRs have completed the survey. Our results showed that ECRs were generally interested to engage in SPIs and believed it to be beneficial in terms of contributing to societal change, understanding policy processes and career development. Respondents perceived lack of understanding about involvement channels, engagement opportunities, funding, training, perceived credibility of ECRs by other actors and encouragement of senior colleagues as barriers to engaging in SPIs. Those who have already participated in SPIs generally saw fewer barriers and more opportunities. A key reason for dissatisfaction with experience in SPIs was a lack of impact and uptake of science-policy outputs by policymakers – an issue that likely extends beyond ECRs and implies the need for transformations in knowledge exchange within SPIs. In conclusion, based on insights from our survey, we outline several opportunities for increased and better facilitation of ECR engagement in SPIs.

Spatio-Temporal Analysis of the Impact of Landscape Changes on Vegetation and Land Surface Temperature over Tamil Nadu

Land-use changes adversely may impact ecological entities and humans by affecting the water cycle, environmental changes, and energy balance at global and regional scales. Like many megaregions in fast emerging countries, Tamil Nadu, one of the largest states and most urbanized (49%) and industrial hubs in India, has experienced extensive landuse and landcover change (LULC). However, the extent and level of landscape changes associated with vegetation health, surface permeability, and Land Surface Temperature (LST) has not yet been quantified. In this study, we employed Random Forest (RF) classification on Landsat imageries from 2000 and 2020. We also computed vegetation health, soil moisture, and LST metrics for two decades from Landsat imageries to delineate the impact of landscape changes in Tamil Nadu using Google Earth Engine (GEE). The level of vegetation health and drought for 2020 was more accurately assessed by combining the Temperature Condition Index (TCI) and Vegetation Condition Index (VCI). A Soil moisture index was subsequently used to identify surface permeability. A 75% expansion in urban areas of Tamil Nadu was detected mainly towards the suburban periphery of major cities between 2000 and 2020. We observed an overall increase in the coverage of urban areas (built-up), while a decrease for vegetated (cropland and forest) areas was observed in Tamil Nadu between 2000 and 2020. The Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) values showed an extensive decline in surface permeability and the LST values showed an overall increase (from a maximum of 41 °C to 43 °C) of surface temperature in Tamil Nadu’s major cities with the highest upsurge for urban built-up areas between 2000 and 2020. Major cities built-up and non-vegetation areas in Tamil Nadu were depicted as potential drought hotspots. Our results deliver significant metrics for surface permeability, vegetation condition, surface temperature, and drought monitoring and urges the regional planning authorities to address the current status and social-ecological impact of landscape changes and to preserve ecosystem services.

Finance, food, and future urban zones: The failure of flexible development in Auckland, New Zealand

As the pace of urbanization across the planet accelerates, planners and policymakers in the world’s fast-growing cities are faced with an intractable conflict between the endless demand for more land to be released for development and the need to preserve ecosystem services and productive agricultural land close to urban centres. Auckland is by far the largest and fastest-growing city in New Zealand, and the rapid pace of residential and commercial development onto greenfield land is putting pressure on less profitable land uses in peri-urban areas. Despite good intentions from city planners to create a high standard of compact urban development in the existing urban footprint, urban sprawl and land fragmentation continue to envelop the rural communities that lie at the edge of Auckland. This paper examines how the policy of flexible development – where zoning provisions for current and future development can be overruled by government and by private applicants in the name of accommodating the ever-greater demand for new residential development - enables developers and landowners to circumvent zoning conventions for the sake of profitability at the expense of long-term quality of life for all of Auckland’s residents, with questionable positive effect on addressing Auckland’s housing crisis as property prices increase at unprecedented rates. To demonstrate this, this paper draws from planning documents, court decisions and fieldwork in Northwest Auckland. it argues that New Zealand’s crisis of housing affordability and urban sprawl is explicitly financial in nature and benefits some parties as much as it causes great detriment to many others, and therefore must be confronted as such.