Prehistoric Period Research Articles

TECHNOLOGICAL AND PROVENANCE ANALYSIS OF AN EARLY AND MIDDLE CYCLADIC POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE FROM THERASIA, GREECE

During the archaeological survey research project ‘Island Cultures in a Diachronic Perspective: the case of Therasia’, large amounts of pottery were recorded throughout the island of Therasia, ranging in date from the Bronze Age to modern times. Focusing on the prehistoric period, pottery of the Early Cycladic and late Middle Cycladic periods was recovered at Panaghia Koimisis, which is situated on the southern part of the island. This paper presents the petrographic data and results of the analysis carried out on pottery samples which are representative of variable surface treatments and different macro-fabrics of these two prehistoric periods. Tackling issues of provenance and technology, the current scientific analysis attests the coexistence of Theran and off-Theran pottery fabrics already at Panaghia Koimisis in the Early Cycladic period. The majority of the pottery fabrics at Panaghia Koimisis were identified as Theran and the analysis demonstrates intensive contacts between the southern parts of Thera and Therasia throughout the Early and late Middle Cycladic phases. Moreover, adding support to previous studies, this research indicates a wide Cycladic pottery network, in which the site participated as a consumer. During the late Middle Cycladic period major changes in the Theran production are documented, including the disappearance of the earlier pottery recipe, which had been prevalent at Panaghia Koimisis.

Geochemical characterisation of pozzolanic obsidian glasses used in the ancient mortars of Nora Roman theatre (Sardinia, Italy): provenance of raw materials and historical–archaeological implications

The study focused on the volcanic glass used in the production of bedding mortars and concrete of the Roman theatre (I cent. AD) of the Nora site. The volcanic glasses were frequently used as aggregate and with pozzolanic function in all hydraulic mortars of the different sectors of the building (e.g., concretes of tribunalia vaults and external niches, jointing and foundation mortars of cavea tier ashlars, brick bedding), together with mainly quartz-feldspar sands, local Oligo-Miocenic andesitic-dacitic volcanics and Palaeozoic and Tyrrhenian sedimentary rocks. These volcanic glasses show characteristics closer to obsidian than to natural pozzolan normally used in the Roman period. They have definitely not sourced locally, unlike the other components that make up the aggregate. To identify their provenance, a petrochemical comparison between several samples taken from the theatre mortars and the volcanic outcrops of some probable Sardinian source areas is made. The use of the not local pozzolanic glass is a technical innovation in the mortars of the Nora archaeological site, and considering the wide use of obsidians in the prehistoric periods for the production of tools, significant considerations about its origin, procurement and use are made.

Tephra productivity and eruption flux of the subglacial Katla volcano, Iceland

The influence of the mode of magma ascent on eruption fluxes is uncertain beneath active volcanoes. To study this, the subglacial volcano Katla, Iceland, whichhas produced abundant tephra through the Holocene, has been investigated through volume estimations of the largest eruptions from the last ~ 3500 years. Tephra volume measurements allow tephra productivity and their variation through time to be estimated. By adding the volume of lava from effusive eruptions, the total eruption flux is obtained. Tephra productivity shows variations with time, ranging from 2.0 km3/century, during the prehistoric period examined, to 0.7 km3/century, during historical time (after 939 CE). However, the average eruption flux remained unchanged (~ 2.2 km3/century) during the studied ~ 3500 years due to the large lava produced during the Eldgja flood basalt eruption (939 CE). Following the Eldgja event, tephra production declined and also eruption frequency, decreasing from 5.6-2.0 eruptions/century. Magma ascending vertically to the glacier -covered volcano results in explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions and tephra formation, whereas magma transferred in a laterally extended dyke leads to predominant fissural eruptions outside the glacier (e.g., Eldgja). The mode of magma ascent thus exerts control on the eruption frequency and the volcanic style at Katla volcano without affecting the long-term eruption flux. A uniform increase in cumulative magma volume from Katla suggests a time-integrated steady-state behavior over the last ~ 3500 years. Finally, although the large fissural eruption of Eldgja lowered the following eruption frequency, it only temporarily affected the time averaged eruption flux of Katla.

Population Genetic Diversity of Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp. Reveals Divergence in Recent and Evolutionary Migration Rates in the Spanish Dehesas

The Spanish dehesas have been severely affected by human activities that date to the prehistoric period and have suffered accelerated decline since the 1980s. Holm oak (Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.) is a key component of this system, and its acorns provide an important food source for wildlife and domesticated livestock. Our earlier work showed structured variation in acorn morphology and biochemistry. Here, we used chloroplast and nuclear microsatellites to detect genetic structure among populations of Q. ilex from the major biogeographic regions of Andalusia. We found high levels of spatial differentiation with chloroplast DNA indicating little seed dispersal among populations. Spatial differentiation was weaker for nuclear DNA, presumably as a result of more widespread pollen dispersal and its larger effective population size. The Baetic Cordillera (Cádiz) population consistently appeared well separated from populations of the northern Sierra Morena, suggesting that the Guadalquivir Valley has played an important role in determining population divergence. This may be, in part, evolutionary, as suggested by chloroplast DNA, and, in part, a result of human-induced population isolation, as Q. ilex has been removed from the Guadalquivir Valley. Evolutionary gene flow rates were greater than contemporary rates, which were limited to unidirectional gene flow from Córdoba to other populations in the Sierra Morena and, surprisingly, to the southern population at Almería. The inconsistency between evolutionary and recent migration rates suggests an effect of anthropogenic activity over the last few generations of Q. ilex.

HISTORY AS A WAY TO THE IDEAL

The article examines the role of the social ideal in history according to the evolution of the Perfect Person image. The Ideal is understood as the image of the appropriate that allows one to assess the things in existence and direction of its development. The pursuit of the Ideal, the essential intention of the person required for their incarnation is one of the driving forces of history. Every historical period constructs its own image of a perfect person and strives to get closer to this image. Ideas about the Perfect Man have been shaped throughout the whole human history, which reflects the permanent dissatisfaction that is inherent to human – dissatisfaction with himself and the world around, the lack of implementation of the essence in their existence, intention to gain their own deepest identity. The first Perfect Man was a Beast. In the prehistoric period it was the Outer Beast that had to be conquered, whereas in antiquity it was the Inner Beast. That was when the first identity crisis arose as a result of inadequate self-esteem ("man as the measure of all things"). The Perfect Man of the Middle Ages was God. The Beast now belonged to the inaccessible past, while God was in the unattainable eternal. This was the second identity crisis. In modern times the Perfect Man becomes a Man. The concept of perfection (as a real possibility) within a man becomes domineering. However, depriving a Man of metaphysics leads to the third identity crisis. In modern times the Perfect Man, increasingly, appears to be a Machine as a man devoid of human weaknesses with heightened human qualities. The analogy between human and machine leads to the fourth identity crisis. The New Perfect Man will be a man as a unique result of the development of all human culture, the synthesis of the unique and the universal.

The Formation of Social Rank in the Early Neolithic of Northern Europe

Klavs Randsborg has made important contributions to the archaeology of the Bronze Age and later prehistoric periods, but in the 1970s he also touched upon issues such as the formation of rank in Neolithic societies. In his article ‘Social Dimensions of Early Neolithic Denmark’, he suggested that a hierarchical society arose at the transition from the Early to Middle Neolithic, c. 3300-3200 BC. Since then, excavations and research have resulted in numerous publications about the Neolithic, but only rarely have these examined social development. In this article, the authors continue the debate, sharing the same starting point as Klavs Randsborg, but here approaching the question of emerging social inequality on the background of recent research into the early agricultural societies in Northern Europe, seen in a broader European context. The primary focus is upon burial monuments as manifestations of status and power, and parallels are drawn with similar construction activities amongst present-day farming communities in such remote areas as the islands of Southeast Asia. The social organisation and ritual customs of these modern farming communities are considered relevant when interpreting the archaeological evidence for early agricultural societies in Northern Europe.

Role of Pacific SSTs in improving reconstructed streamflow over the coterminous US

Reconstructed annual streamflows using tree-ring chronologies provide useful information on moisture availability during the pre-historic period, but they have limitations in estimating high flows due to the upper bound on soil water holding capacity and trees’ metabolic growth limits. We propose a hybrid approach that uses tree-ring chronologies and climatic indices for improving high flows in 301 basins whose annual streamflows are modulated by ENSO and/or PDO. The hybrid decomposition approach relies on separating the moisture supply into the basin as outside-the-region moisture and within-the-region moisture with the former being estimated by SST indices and the latter being estimated by tree-ring chronologies. Analyses over the 301 stations from coterminous US show that the proposed approach improves the high flows and improves the overall error in the reconstructed streamflows. Potential utility of the improved reconstructed annual streamflows with improved high flows is also discussed.

Refining Broad-Scale Vulnerability Assessment of Coastal Archaeological Resources, Lough Foyle, Northern Ireland

ABSTRACTIncreasing evidence indicates that ongoing and future climate change impacts, such as enhanced coastal erosion driven by intensified storms and sea-level rise, will be destructive or problematic for coastal archaeological heritage. Approaches to this problem range from broad-scale GIS-based vulnerability assessments to site-scale monitoring and survey. In all cases, the approach chosen should be based on the best-available data on the local historic environment and pattern of coastal change. Therefore, this paper will demonstrate how such data can be successively acquired and enhanced using an integrated approach that builds on and refines a previously conducted broad-scale vulnerability assessment. This approach was adopted in the study region (Northern Ireland) owing to a lack of coherent and up-to-date information on shoreline change. This approach incorporated the GIS-based Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) to quantify and analyze local shoreline change. DSAS is a software extension for ESRI ArcGIS which allows calculation of rate-of-change statistics using past shorelines identified from georeferenced historic maps and vertical aerial imagery. Additionally, a field survey was conducted to assess the condition of recorded sites, and identify unrecorded ones. Results revealed a more complex pattern of shoreline change in the study area (Magilligan Foreland, Lough Foyle) than previously anticipated, with zones of significant erosion interspersed with areas of stability or advance. Fifty-one new sites ranging from the prehistoric period to the Second World War were also identified. The new information was used to develop a priority classification based on site significance, condition and risk level which improved significantly on the uniform classification of the original broad-scale assessment.

Traseologická analýza neolitické štípané industrie z lokalit Bylany, Miskovice, Mšeno a Tachlovice

A very important part of archaeological finds, and often the only one providing information about the population living in Prehistoric period, are the stone artefacts. The study of the stone industry, especially the function of the stone tools, is therefore one of the crucial ways to gain better understanding of prehistoric societies. The function is defined as a combination of the action which a tool was used with and the material it was used on. This thesis consists of several main topics. The first part is focused on history and present state of the microwear analysis, including the detailed description of the use-wear method. It gives the most comprehensive evaluation and insight written in Czech language so far. The second part is based on the broad issue of the contact materials in the context of use-wear analysis and anthropology. Two brand new categories (mushrooms and fruits), along with corresponding descriptions of standard traces (consulted with foreign experts), are introduced. These standards come from author’s own experimental activities and microscopic analysis. The third part summarizes the main findings about the Neolithic Age – and above all, about the life of these people and knowledge about their stone industry – giving a frame for their material culture, discussed in the next chapter. This chapter is also devoted to description of four selected archaeological sites from Bohemia – Bylany (Kutna Hora district), Miskovice (Kutna Hora district), Mšeno (Mělnik district) and Tachlovice (Beroun district). That section also specifically presents the results of the use-wear analysis, performed on the lithic collection of 816 artefacts, and their interpretations. The data obtained through this analysis are compared with data published by other traceologists and discussed in the context of the Neolithic in Central Europe.

Zomorphic images of Ukrainian folklore: demiurge birds in the Ukrainian winter calendar ritual poetry

The world-view system of Ukrainians is one of the richest and symbolically-filled models of knowledge of the surrounding world, which fully represented itself in various forms of art and, above all, in folklore. It is the oral folk art that most fully preserved the representation of the ancient Ukrainians about the establishment of the world, the appearance of the first plants and animals, the emergence of elements, human, etc. At that time, when there was no written language yet (prehistoric period), our ancestors broadcasted their understanding of life processes by means of verbal literature, encrypting it in a figurative system. The article examines the history of the study of zoomorphic images in Ukrainian folklore from the 1930s to the present, points to the diversity of interpretation of animal symbols in different genres of oral folk poetry, and focuses on the symbols of demiurgeous birds. It is in the poetry of the winter calendar ritual cycle, as the oldest stratum of Ukrainian folklore, that we find the image of the birds-founders of our world, which forms a coherent picture of the mythological notions of our ancestors about its beginning. In carols and shcherdivkas, in particular cosmogonic, ornithopes are a prominent place. The connection between the image of the bird and the two most ancient ideas-symbols – the true and the world tree-the most archaic models of the world order – is analyzed. At a time when in folk poetry of other genres, ornithomorphic images carry a diverse semantic load, then in cosmogonic carols they symbolize only the process of creation, where the act of diving, immersion in the right is a symbol of the «conception» of the world, the penetration and degeneration of one life-giving energy into another (the idea of fertility).It was in the images of the falcon and the pigeon, pure and good beings, that our ancestors saw the founders of all living things, they considered their primary source and life-giving energy.

Mabedda Bola ritual in South Sulawesi; The relation of handprints in traditional houses and hand stencils in prehistoric caves

Mabedda Bola is a ritual which has been handed down from the ancestors of the Bugis – Makassarese people in South Sulawesi. At the ceremony which is called menre bola baru, held as part of the ritual inauguration of a new house, the Mabedda Bola, handprints are made on the poles and walls of the new house. In the region in which this custom is still honoured, hand stencils on the walls of the prehistoric caves have also been found. This article examines the significance of handprints in the Mabedda Bola ritual which might possibly be related to the hand stencils on the walls of the prehistoric caves. Using the perspective of analogy, one of the methods of ethnoarchaeology, it has been discovered that handprints and hand stencils take more or less the same form. The similarities between them hint at the same behavioural patterns between the present day and the prehistoric period. The print of the hand palm is meant to mark the ownership of the family or group who dwell in a traditional house or it is thought in a particular cave. Moreover, it is and was to avert danger or the intrusion of bad influences from outside.

Assessment of long‐term Holocene soil erosion rates in Polish loess areas using sedimentary archives from closed depressions

AbstractSoil erosion is a particularly important problem in the loess areas of Central Europe. Numerous studies of past and present soil erosion based on colluvial sediments have so far been conducted. The main problem is the fact that colluvia usually do not represent the complete sedimentation record. Closed depressions (CDs) collect all colluvial sediments from their catchment, therefore, constitute sediment stores enabling the calculation of soil erosion rates.Colluvial sediments and fossil soils, infilling four CDs in the Polish loess belt, were OSL and C‐14 dated. Human settlements near the studied CDs were analyzed. Phases of soil erosion and colluviation from the Neolithic (5400–2900 bc), from the Middle Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age (1600–0 bc), and from the Early Middle Ages to Modern Times (500 AD until today) were documented within the CDs studied. Phases of low soil erosion rate and pedogenesis occurred from the Late Vistulian to the Early Neolithic and from the Iron Age to Early Middle Ages. This study reveals that these phases are not synchronous with the soil erosion phases in Central Europe, as the latter mainly occurred in the Bronze Age, Roman Period and Middle Ages. The obtained soil erosion rates were compared with erosion rates in different areas of Central Europe. This study indicates that in loess regions with long‐term agricultural land use, mean erosion rates (i.e. 3.7–5.9 t ha‐1 yr‐1) from the Middle Ages to Modern Times were ten times higher than during the entire prehistoric period (0.39–0.67 t ha‐1 yr‐1). The mean soil erosion rates for forested CDs was 0.24–0.74 t ha‐1 yr‐1.Soil erosion phases are most probably caused by human activities (i.e. land use change) but the early Holocene erosion phase (7.96 +/‐ 0.67 kyr) could have been induced by a climatic fluctuation (e.g. a 8.2 kyr Bond event). Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A 10,000 yr record of high-resolution Paleosecular Variation from a flowstone of Rio Martino Cave, Northwestern Alps, Italy

Speleothems are potentially excellent archives of the Earth's magnetic field, capable of recording its past variations. Their characteristics, such as the continuity of the record, the possibility to be easily dated, the almost instantaneous remanence acquisition and the high time-resolution make them potentially unique high-quality Paleosecular Variation (PSV) recorders. Nevertheless, speleothems are commonly characterized by low magnetic intensities, which often limits their resolution. Here we present a paleomagnetic study performed on two cores from a flowstone from the Rio Martino Cave (Western Alps, Italy). U/Th dating indicates that the flowstone's deposition covers almost the entire Holocene, spanning the period ca. 0.5–9.0 ka, while an estimation of its mean growth rate is around 1 mm per 15 years. The flowstone is composed of columnar calcite, characterized by a highly magnetic detrital content from meta-ophiolites in the cave's catchment. This favorable geological context results in an intense magnetic signal that permits the preparation and measurement of thin (∼3 mm depth equivalent) samples, each representing around 45 yr. The Characteristic Remanent Magnetization (ChRM), isolated after systematic stepwise Alternating Field demagnetization, is well defined, with Maximum Angular Deviation (MAD) generally lower than 10°. Paleomagnetic directional data allow the reconstruction of the PSV path during the Holocene for the area. Comparison of the new data with archeomagnetic data from Italian archeological and volcanic records and using the predictions of the SHA.DIF.14k and pfm9k.1a global geomagnetic field models shows that the Rio Martino flowstone represents an excellent recorder of the Earth's magnetic field during the last 9,000 years. Our high resolution paleomagnetic record, anchored by a high-quality chronology, provides promising data both for the detection of short term geomagnetic field variations and for complementing existing regional PSV curves for the prehistoric period, for which well-dated data are still scarce.

Hand Designs in Rock Art from Northern Baja California, Mexico

Hand representations are scarce in the rock art from northern Baja California. They have been identified at only five archaeological sites located in the territory that was inhabited by Kumeyaay groups during the late prehistoric period. The analyzed hand designs are associated with geometric elements, mainly concentric circles, diamonds, zigzags, triangles, and schematic anthropomorphic designs with or without fingers and toes; these elements are characteristic of the graphic style known as La Rumorosa. The designs can be classified into two categories, drawn hands and positive imprints. Some of the latter may be decorated or stylized. In all cases, the designs are monochromatic and were made with red, white, or black pigments. The lack of uniformity in the representation, style, colors, and placement of the designs on the panels seems to indicate that hand impression was not a common practice and that the analyzed cases are related to special events in the ritual activity that involved a diverse population.

Beszámoló a balatonszemesi Bolondvár (Kern villa) területén 2007 nyarán folytatott megelőző régészeti kutatásról

This article deals with the excavation centered in Balatonszemes, during 17-25 June, 2007. On the site called ’Bolondvár’ – now surrounded by the mansion of the Kern family – existed a stronghold from the Ottoman era, bearing a significance in srategic defence. Our excavation proved no evidence of a presumed settlement or enclosure from the prehistoric period. Due to the built-in and disturbed area, we found no material from the enclosure and the inner build-ings. As our chief result, we determined the structure of the west causeway along with a deep trench situtated before it. Remains of a collapsed house refers to the stronghold’s de-struction by the fire circa 1683-86. The most important mate-rial from the late Ottoman era was uncovered there: glazed wares, bit, whitstone and a large group of animal bones.

Tecnología de arponaje en la costa del desierto de Atacama, norte de Chile

Marine hunting was an essential activity in the way of life of the Atacama Desert littoralinhabitants, at northern Chile. A pillar in their social structure that was based in the materialmeans to realize it, as boats and their sophisticated harpoon device, resting in the last thepossibility of capture and drag mainland preys that substantially outweigh the hunter.Currently the knowledge of harpooning is scarce in archaeology. For this reason we will delvein their morphology, composition, technical qualities, instrumental diversity, and chronologyfrom a 129 harpoon heads sample from different prehistoric periods (6500 cal BP to colony).We will begin conceptually defining the harpoon function, followed by a first typologicalexercise to order the multiplicity of forms and solutions in a global scale to place the analyzedspecimens. In a second typological exercise we will classify the local expression diversity,differentiating them materially and placing them chronologically. Only after this necessaryclassificatory stage we can approach to their harpoon technology, the hunter role as a socialsubject, and the position of hunting in the littoral society.

Hybrid beings and representation of power in the prehistoric period

MO 40 binlerde Ust Paleolitik donemin baslamasi ile birlikte, insanin bilissel ve sembolik dunyasinin gelisiminde buyuk bir degisim ortaya cikar. Karisik varliklarin tasvirli sanat eserlerinde ilk defa ortaya cikisi, Ust Paleolitik avci kulturlerin gelisimi ile paralellik gostermistir. Karisik varlik figurlerinin ortaya cikisinda, avci kulturler icerisinde yaygin bir inanc sistemini olusturan samanizmin ilkel bicimlerinin etkisi soz konusudur. Dogada guclu ve zeki olana ozenme, insanin fiziksel ve zihinsel kapasitesini bu gucle birlestirme arzusu, karisik varlik figurlerinin dogusunun ana dinamiklerinden biridir. Dunyayi turler arasi gecirgenlige sahip, hayvansal bir duyarlilik ve canlilikla algilayan Ust Paleolitik donem insanin bilissel dunyasinda seyler ve insan ayni duzlemde ve bir butunluk icinde yer aliyor olmaliydi. Bu butunlugun ve “birlik” algisinin kirilmasinda, avcinin, ayni duzlemde, ayni ruhsal birlik icerisinde yer alana karsi uyguladigi yasaklanmis siddet olgusunun yarattigi korku ve gerilim, mitik dusunce yoluyla dengelenmeye calisilmistir. Yasaklanmis siddet, kurban ile ozdeslesen bir bilinc durumu yaratmistir. Ust Paleolitik ile baslayan bu yeni sembolik bilinc, guclu ve vahsi olana yonelen siddetin yarattigi gerilim ve korkunun kontrolunu, kurbanin gucu ile ozdesleserek dengelemeye calismistir. Baslangicta insanhayvan karisik varliklarin sunumlari soz konusu iken, Neolitik donem ile birlikte, ilk defa iki farkli hayvan ve insan birlesimi karisik varliklarin da ortaya cikmasi, insanin bilissel gelisiminin ulastigi seviyeyi gostermesi bakimindan onemlidir. Avci toplayici toplumlarda kulturel gecirgenlik, devamlilik ve hareketlilik oldukca yaygin oldugundan bu calisma, ozellikle karisik varlik sembollerinin yogun olarak goruldugu iki bolge, Ust Paleolitik Avrupa ve Neolitik donem Yakindogu’ya odaklanmistir

The prehistory of York

Over the past half century knowledge of the archaeology of Roman, Viking and Medieval York has advanced significantly, yet information on preceding prehistoric periods remains scanty. To all intents and purposes the prehistory of the York area is as invisible in literature as it is on the ground. This paper will briefly review the background to the prehistory of York, attempt a characterisation of the archaeology, and propose an outline strategy to advance understanding of the prehistory of what is probably the least well known sub-region of Yorkshire. An initial version of this paper was presented at a conference on the archaeology of York, held in the city in November 2011.

The Completion of Tai History

This paper investigates Tai History from prehistoric period to Nanzhao Kingdom in order to fill up a black hole of Tai history. The 17 year research reverse engineered to empirically trace of Ahomburanji back to Shiji. Researches of many scholars have been evaluated and properly applied to support the assumption. The results proved Tai establish civilized “Fuxian kingdom” at Kunming known as “Xian Dynasty” prior Chinese Xia, “Zhang dynasty” in 1600 BC and “Xeang or Ailao Dynasty” in 122 BC. Two States, Siam and Mao were found and lasted hundreds of years until Nanzhou Kingdoms. The research also found that Tai and Chinese were Yin and Yang, similar to husband and wife, always sweet and bitter. They finally somehow got divorce but their friendships have still lasted eternally.

Vestiges of Glacial Action in Ostrava: Their Significance for and Application in Geotourism

The territory of Northern Moravia and Silesia is outstanding from the geological point of view. The abundance of different mineral resources has largely contributed to the intense development of the territory, particularly in the 19th century. Mineral resources were discovered already in the pre-historic period, when pre-historic man found coal at the coal seam exposures in Ostrava-Landek. They also used some raw materials that had been transported there by glacial action of the last Saale glaciation. Flint fragments and other travelled material may be frequently found in many localities to date. Large pieces that are called glacial boulders have been removed and exhibited for more than a century in many towns of the region. These vestiges of glacial action represent one of the many stages the Earth has passed through its history. At present, such findings mainly have an aesthetic function. Particularly interesting specimens have been protected as national monuments. The geomorphology of Ostrava has been responsible for the findings of the largest glacial boulders within the Czech Republic. Many of the formations are fascinating specimens that enrich the list of numerous geomontane sights in the City of Ostrava.