Predator Management Research Articles

Wildlife value orientations and their relationships with mid-size predator management

ABSTRACTWildlife managers can use wildlife value orientations (WVOs) to help predict public acceptance of management actions. However, WVOs may only be effective if they have high predictive value and research on small and non-charismatic wildlife has indicated this is not universally true. In this paper, we report the findings of a survey (n= 376) that evaluated the predictive value of WVOs (domination and mutualism) for six mid-size predator species across three conflict scenarios (no conflict, property damage, threats to humans/pets) and four management actions (do nothing, trap and relocate, citizen lethal trap/hunt, lethal removal by control experts). WVOs explained the most variance for lethal management actions (citizens hunt/trap 22–40%; experts lethally remove 14–31%), and least for trapping and relocating (<1–10%). Species was related to the predictive power of WVOs, as the most variation was explained for coyotes, and least for otters. Findings demonstrate that WVOs provide valuable insights for management decision-making.

The Marin County Livestock Protection Program: 15 Years in Review

Author(s): Larson, Stephanie; McGranahan, Devan A.; Timm, Robert M. | Abstract: In 2001, Marin County, California, replaced its USDA Wildlife Services (WS) cooperative predator damage management program with a county-run program that emphasized non-lethal methods for preventing and controlling coyote predation on sheep. This new “Livestock Protection Program” cost-shared with livestock producers’ efforts to improve fencing, obtain and maintain guard animals, and other such non-lethal methods, and initially it compensated producers for documented losses to predators. We surveyed sheep producers in Marin County in an effort to review the program over the past 15 years, evaluating the program in relation to livestock production, economics, predation management, and other measures of producer satisfaction. Lack of standardized data collection during the current program complicates its evaluation; however, from available information, we conclude the number of sheep and lambs are being produced in Marin County has continued to decline; some producers left the sheep business and other who remain graze less acreage with smaller flocks; predation by coyotes remains a high concern to producers; and most producers are dissatisfied with the Livestock Protection Program.

Spatial and temporal variation in mountain hare (Lepus timidus) abundance in relation to red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scotica) management in Scotland

Mountain hares (Lepus timidus) are regularly harvested on Scottish moorland managed for recreational hunting of red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scotica). There are concerns that large-scale culls of mountain hares on grouse moors are contributing to population declines of mountain hares in Scotland. We use hare data collected during red grouse counts in Scotland, to consider spatial and temporal variation in annual mountain hare indices of spring abundance in relation to different grouse management intensities, classified as either ‘Driven’ (driven grouse shooting), ‘Walked-up’ (walked-up shooting) or ‘Not-shot’ (where there was no grouse shooting interest). Trends in mountain hare abundance indices varied with region and grouse management intensity. Hare indices were higher and relatively stable on moors where driven grouse shooting was practised relative to lower indices and declines on moors where grouse were either walked-up or not shot. Abundance indices fluctuated over time in a quasi-cyclical manner, fluctuations being more pronounced where hares were more abundant, i.e. on driven grouse moors. Density-dependent processes such as resource competition and parasitism could explain greater fluctuations in areas where hare abundance indices were higher, whilst reductions in indices over time probably reflect sampling at decline phases of the cycle, particularly on driven moors, rather than being part of true long-term declines. Given our understanding of grouse moor management and mountain hare ecology, enhanced habitat management and control of generalist predators seem to be the most parsimonious explanation for higher abundances indices of mountain hare on driven grouse moors.

FoxNet: An individual‐based model framework to support management of an invasive predator, the red fox

Abstract Invasive predators are a key driver of biodiversity decline, and effective predator management is an important conservation issue globally. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) poses a significant threat to wildlife, livestock and human health across Eurasia, North America and Australia. Despite worldwide investment in red fox management, decision makers still lack flexible tools for predicting control efficacy. We have developed FoxNet, a spatially explicit, individual‐based model (IBM) framework that can be customised to predict red fox population dynamics, including responses to control and landscape productivity. High‐resolution models can be run across northern and southern hemisphere landscapes. We present four case‐study models to verify FoxNet outputs, explore key sensitivities and demonstrate the framework's utility as a management planning tool. FoxNet models were largely successful in reproducing the demographic structure of two red fox populations in highly contrasting landscapes. They also accurately generated the relationship between home‐range size and fox‐family density for home‐range sizes between 1.0 and 9.6 km2, and captured the rapid decline and seasonally driven recovery of a red fox population following poison‐baiting. An exploration of alternative poison‐baiting scenarios for a conservation reserve predicted that current management suppresses red fox density by ~70% and showed that frequent baiting is required to combat recolonisation. Baiting at higher densities or establishing a baited buffer would further reduce red fox density. Predictions were sensitive to home‐range and litter size assumptions, illustrating the value of region‐specific data on red fox movement and biology. Synthesis and applications. We have developed a versatile individual‐based model framework to guide management of the red fox, a globally significant invasive predator. Our framework, FoxNet, can be customised to generate realistic predictions of red fox population dynamics in diverse landscapes, making it immediately applicable to the design and optimisation of predator control programmes at scales relevant to management. Future extensions could explore competitor and prey responses to red fox control and the effects of habitat disturbance on predator population dynamics.

Foraging theory provides a useful framework for livestock predation management

A societal shift toward plant dominant diets and a reduction in livestock rearing could have broad social, environmental and conservation benefits. Livestock husbandry, however, has a wealthy cultural history, strong support and high consumer demand. It is therefore likely to continue as a major land use and conservation issue for predators. From a producer’s perspective, the primary goals of livestock protection are maximising, or at least maintaining, production by minimising losses and mitigating detriment to stock welfare. Lethal removal of predators remains a commonplace solution. Such management measures are questionable as they raise animal welfare and conservation concerns, risk inhibiting ecological processes, are often expensive, and in some circumstances, exacerbate livestock predation problems. Non-lethal alternatives can facilitate co-existence between livestock farmers and predators, ideally reducing the ecological impact of pastoralism and achieving conservation goals. The need for rigorous study of non-lethal approaches has however been recently highlighted. Tools and methods involved in livestock protection, as well as the theoretical basis of how we perceive and manage the problem, require deeper consideration. Non-lethal approaches require knowledgeable implementation and an effective decision making system is a prerequisite for successful practice. Livestock predation and its prevention are fundamentally influenced by the underlying principles of foraging ecology and risk theory. We propose that manipulating elements of Brown’s (1988) quitting harvest rate model provides a useful conceptual framework for reducing livestock predation and encouraging coexistence.

Conserving New Zealand’s native fauna: a review of tools being developed for the Predator Free 2050 programme

The endemic fauna of New Zealand evolved in the absence of mammalian predators and the introduction of the latter has been devastating. There have been numerous avian extinctions and 80% of the extant native avian taxa are currently threatened or at risk of extinction. Declines continue, and a fundamental change in predator management is required. In 2016 came the announcement of the ambitious Predator Free 2050 (PF 2050) programme, which aims to eradicate rats, mustelids, and Brushtail Possums from New Zealand by 2050. This paper reviews some of the many techniques being discussed or developed to implement the programme. Existing techniques are being refined and new tools are being developed. Research on new toxins, including those with potentially higher species specificity, is under way, and novel baits and toxin-delivery devices are being developed. Existing trap designs are being refined, and new self-resetting traps capable of multiple kills have been developed. Research is also under way on new lures and repellents. Eradications may be achieved in stages, and barriers (both natural and artificial) will be needed to protect areas already cleared. Current techniques will probably be inadequate to effect nationwide eradications, and new tools (possibly based on genetic technologies) will probably be required. Regulatory hurdles will need to be overcome, and community consultation and support (social licence) will be required throughout the programme. The use of some new technologies may be contentious, and not every new idea will necessarily be adopted. Technical, social, and organisational challenges exist, and national and international collaboration will be required for PF 2050 to succeed.

Spatial patterns and drivers of invasive rodent dynamics in New Zealand forests

Populations of invasive ship rat (Rattus rattus) and house mouse (Mus musculus) vary greatly over both time and space in New Zealand’s indigenous forests. Both species threaten endemic fauna, and their spatiotemporal variation over short time scales and steep environmental gradients present substantial challenges for conservation management. We fitted models to 18 years of 3-monthly records from a large-scale tracking-tunnel network to (1) predict, classify and describe forest-wide spatial patterns of temporal dynamics of unmanaged rat and mouse populations, and (2) understand the population-limiting roles of environment and biotic interactions. We distinguish six classes of forest rodent dynamics by classifying deciles of predicted rat-tracking rates. Classes form sequences across broad latitudinal and elevation gradients, and grade from ‘irruptive’, with low median but synchronous high maximum rat and mouse tracking rates in colder forests, to ‘continuously ratty’, with high median rat and low unsynchronised mouse tracking rates in warmer forests. Mice irrupt alone more frequently in colder forests, and their tracking rates are spatially reciprocal with rat tracking rate minima but not maxima. We conclude that predictable spatial patterns of rodent population dynamics arise from stronger low-temperature limitations on rats than mice, biotic limitation of mice by rats, and spatiotemporal food resource patterns affecting both species. Practical implications are that native species conservation in New Zealand forests requires spatially-differentiated predator management regimes; ship rats are likely to become increasingly prevalent at higher elevations as climate warms; and suppression of ship rats alone will release house mouse populations, especially in warmer forests.

Genomic resources for the spotted ragged-tooth shark Carcharias taurus

Genomic data can be a useful tool in the management and conservation of biodiversity. Here, we report the development of genomic resources for the spotted ragged-tooth shark Carcharias taurus using genome-wide DNA data from Illumina next-generation sequencing. We explored two commonly used genetic marker types: microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA. A total of 4 394 putative microsatellites were identified, of which 10 were tested on 24 individuals and found to have ideal properties for population genetic analyses. Additionally, we reconstructed the first complete mitochondrial genome of a South African spotted ragged-tooth shark, and highlight the most informative gene regions to facilitate future primer design. The data reported here may serve as a resource for future studies and can ultimately be applied in the sustainable conservation and fisheries management of this apex predator.

Designing a camera trap monitoring program to measure efficacy of invasive predator management

Context Evaluating predator management efficacy is difficult, especially when resources are limited. Carefully designing monitoring programs in advance is critical for data collection that is sufficient to evaluate management success and to inform decisions. Aims The aim was to investigate how the design of camera trap studies can affect the ability to reliably detect changes in red fox (Vulpes vulpes) activity over space and time. Specifically, to examine the effect of study duration, camera cost and detection zone under various environmental and management scenarios, including different fox densities, management impacts, monitoring budgets and levels of spatial and temporal variation. Methods A generalised linear mixed model was used to analyse simulated datasets from control sites and sites with predator management actions implemented, following a before–after or control–impact sampling design. Statistical power analyses were conducted to evaluate whether a change in fox abundance could be detected across various environmental and management scenarios. Key results Results showed that a before–after sampling design is less sensitive than a control–impact sampling design to the number of cameras used for monitoring. However, a before–after sampling design requires a longer monitoring period to achieve a satisfactory level of power, due to higher sensitivity to study duration. Given a fixed budget, there can be a trade-off between purchasing a small number of high quality cameras with large detection zones, or a larger number of cameras with smaller detection zones. In a control-impact design we found that if spatial heterogeneity was high, a larger number of cameras with smaller detection zones provided more power to detect a difference in fox abundance. Conclusion This simulation-based approach demonstrates the importance of exploring various monitoring designs to detect the effect of predator management across plausible environmental and budgetary scenarios. Implications The present study informs the monitoring design of an adaptive management program that aims to understand the role of managing fox predation on malleefowl (Leipoa ocellata), a threatened Australian bird. Furthermore, this approach provides a useful guide for developing cost-effective camera trap monitoring studies to assess efficacy of conservation management programs. Power analyses are an essential step for designing efficient monitoring, and indicate the strength of ecological signals that can realistically be detected through the noise of spatial and temporal heterogeneity under various budgetary constraints.

Fish size selection and diet composition of Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) in salmonid streams: Picky gourmets rather than opportunists?

Knowledge on predator diet and drivers of prey selection is particularly of interest for an efficient management of predator and prey populations where predators potentially compete with humans for resources. Actual or perceived predation by Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) on fish stocks generates conflicts in many countries. Recently, conflicts are heating up in riverine habitats, where multiple stressors affect stream fish populations. We combined dietary analysis of otter faeces and prey fish availability in three Austrian streams to assess spatial and seasonal differences in diet composition, the extent of (salmonid) fish consumption and the selection for specific salmonid fish sizes relative to their availability. Otters in upper reaches of temperate salmonid streams occupied a narrow trophic niche. Overall, otters fed predominantly on fish with salmonids dominating diet, both in terms of frequency and ingested biomass measures. Within the category of salmonids, otters selected for specific size classes. Concurrently, otters also displayed an opportunistic feeding behaviour, and seasonally and locally non-fish prey and other fish species than salmonids became key resources. Diet composition and salmonid size selection varied significantly within and between streams, which we relate to spatio-temporal variations of prey community composition and stream-specific habitat characteristics affecting prey vulnerability.

Contemporary Livestock–Predator Themes Identified Through a Wyoming, USA Rancher Survey

On the Ground • Livestock-predator interactions structure ranchers' perceptions of predators. • We surveyed 274 ranchers in Wyoming using open-answer questions about contemporary livestock-predator themes. • Four themes emerged: 1) difficulty mitigating losses from protected large carnivores; 2) escalating impacts of predatory birds on livestock and wildlife; 3) sustainability of predator management funding; and 4) continual bureaucratic complexities of predator management. • Themes had an underlying thread regarding the tension between state control versus federal control including concern about growing predator populations that may affect both livestock and native wildlife such as greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus).

Spatial, temporal and attitudinal dimensions of conflict between predators and small-livestock farmers in the Central Karoo

Conflict between predators and small-livestock farmers is a global phenomenon adversely impacting the preservation of wildlife, the well-being of livestock and human livelihoods. Such conflict is pervasive in the Karoo region of South Africa but its contemporary history and various causes remain poorly understood. In this study, we interviewed 77 small-livestock farmers in the Central Karoo between July 2014 and March 2015 to (1) assess the spatio-temporal distribution and severity of the reported predation problems with the main regional predators of livestock (black-backed jackal, caracal and baboon) and (2) describe the perceived reasons for changes in predator numbers. Farmers reported that serious predation problems have increased since the 1990s for all three predators. Jackal predation appears to have re-emerged, particularly since the 2000s, while baboon predation seems to have escalated rapidly since 2014 for select farmers. Farms with more rugged terrain were more likely to experience serious problems with baboons and caracal but ruggedness did not predict the year of onset of problems. Farmers perceive predator numbers to be increasing and attribute this trend to declining government support for predator management, changes in farming practices and the associated increase in suitable predator habitat, from which they can recolonise commercial farms.

Evidence that reducing mammalian predators is beneficial for threatened and declining New Zealand grasshoppers

ABSTRACTWe evaluate evidence that reducing mammalian predators benefits threatened and declining grasshoppers in the Mackenzie Basin, New Zealand. Long-term population trends of Sigaus minutus are investigated under three control regimes: high intensity, indirect control through prey reduction and no control. We then test whether predator control benefits conservation management of Brachaspis robustus by translocating wild-caught individuals to areas of moderate versus no predator control. A significant positive trend in S. minutus counts occurred under high intensity and indirect control, suggesting that mammalian predator control is beneficial. Differences in the decline of translocated B. robustus were observed between moderate and no predator control release sites but could not be unequivocally attributed to predator densities. We recommend replicated predator control studies be undertaken to develop a predator management strategy which will enable grasshopper recovery, and investigate the potential for meso-predator release and prey-switching under regimes that target specific mammals.

Integrated population model to improve knowledge and management of Idaho wolves

ABSTRACTRecently, several states in the western United States have assumed management authority of gray wolves (Canis lupus). Wolves pose a challenge for management agencies who must reconcile interests related to conservation of an ecologically important carnivore with management of a dominant predator of ungulates that are highly valued by the hunting public. Thus, managers seek reliable information on the status of wolf populations, the implications of management actions, and the effects of wolf predation on ungulates. We developed an integrated population model (IPM) for wolves in Idaho to assess their status and evaluate the effects of harvest on wolf demographics. We combined pack counts with known‐fate data from global positioning system (GPS)‐collared wolves to obtain estimates of pack size, harvest, non‐harvest mortality, dispersal, and recruitment. Our application emphasizes some of the key benefits of an IPM approach including estimation of parameters for which no direct data are available, the ability to reconstruct pack sizes during periods when count data were missing, and an evaluation of harvest effects on wolf population dynamics. Mean size of wolf packs averaged 5.5 from 2005–2016. There was a general decline in pack size from 2006–2012 with the smallest occurring in 2012, just after the 2011–2012 harvest season. Since 2012, mean pack size has increased, coinciding with a declining trend in the probability of harvest. We found no difference in mid‐year recruitment of wolves into packs during periods with versus without harvest and concluded that harvest mortality is additive to non‐harvest mortality. Thus, harvest may be an effective tool for agencies to manage wolf populations. Although our IPM was informative for wolf management, future monitoring will likely benefit from seeking less costly data sources within an IPM framework. © 2018 The Wildlife Society.

Samandağ Kumsalı Yeşil Deniz Kaplumbağası (Chelonia mydas) Yuvalarında Memeli Predasyonunun Zamansal ve Mekansal Değişiminin İncelenmesi

Yuva predasyonu, birçok nesli tükenmekte olan kuş ve sürüngen türünün korunması için önemli bir pratik zorluktur ve yavru başarısını azaltma ve tehdit altındaki popülasyonların iyileşmesini yavaşlatma potansiyeline sahiptir. Yuva predasyonunun zamansal ve mekansal değişiminin tahmin edilmesi predasyon yönetimini optimize etme potansiyeline sahiptir. Bu çalışmada, Samandağ kumsalında yeşil deniz kaplumbağası (Chelonia mydas) yuvalarında memeli predasyonunun zamansal ve mekansal değişimleri araştırıldı. 2012 ve 2017 yılları arasında 733'ü metal ızgaralı kafes ile korunan, 231'i ise metal ızgara ile korumaya alınmamış kontrol yuvaları olan toplam 964 yuva araştırıldı. En etkili yuva predatörü Çakal olarak tespit edildi. Yuvaların metal ızgaralı kafes ile korunması yavru başarısını etkin bir şekilde arttırdı. Predasyona uğrayan yuva sayısı yıllara göre pozitif bir eğilim gösterdi, ancak bu eğilim istatistiksel olarak anlamlı değildi. Predasyon olasılığı kuluçka döneminin sonuna doğru arttı ve deniz ve bitki örtüsüne olan mesafeye göre mekansal değişimde farklılık ortaya çıkmadı. Ayrıca, kumsalın sonuna doğru predasyon olasılığı arttı. Yuva yoğunluğu ve yuva derinliklerine bağlı predasyon olma ihtimalinin ileride araştırılması önemlidir. Ayrıca Samandağ sahilinde baskın yırtıcı olan Çakalların populasyon ekolojisi ve statüsünün araştırılması da her iki tür için de önemlidir.

A Livestock Guardian Dog by Any Other Name: Similar Response to Wolves Across Livestock Guardian Dog Breeds

Nonlethal tools for reducing livestock depredations, such as livestock guardian dogs (LGDs; Canis familiaris), reduce lethal management of livestock predators and have been widely adopted by domestic sheep (Ovis aries) producers in the United States. However, compared with their success in reducing coyote (Canis latrans) depredations, commonly used LGD breeds appear less effective against wolves (Canis lupus). With more than 30 distinct LGD breeds found throughout the world, certain breeds may be more effective at deterring specific threats. We compared LGD breeds commonly used in the United States, collectively called whitedogs, with three European breeds selected for boldness toward carnivores, history of use in areas with wolves, lack of aggression toward humans, and size. We collected data on LGD behavior with sheep herds in Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming in 2015 and 2016. We also developed a test to examine LGDs’ response to a simulated encounter with a wolf while on summer grazing range. Results from generalized linear mixed models of proportion of time spent in a given behavior indicate that few significant behavioral differences exist among tested breeds. Kangals tended to be more investigative when engaging a decoy, karakachans more vigilant, and transmontanos more able to decipher a threatening from unthreatening stimulus. Transmontanos also spent less time scanning than whitedogs, and there was a marginally significant effect of karakachans moving more than whitedogs. While these subtle behavioral differences may help livestock producers make tailored decisions in choosing the appropriate LGD for their needs and circumstance, our results suggest that behavioral differences among breeds may be less common than often suggested.

Co-occurrence dynamics of endangered Lower Keys marsh rabbits and free-ranging domestic cats: Prey responses to an exotic predator removal program.

The Lower Keys marsh rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris hefneri) is one of many endangered endemic species of the Florida Keys. The main threats are habitat loss and fragmentation from sea‐level rise, development, and habitat succession. Exotic predators such as free‐ranging domestic cats (Felis catus) pose an additional threat to these endangered small mammals. Management strategies have focused on habitat restoration and exotic predator control. However, the effectiveness of predator removal and the effects of anthropogenic habitat modifications and restoration have not been evaluated. Between 2013 and 2015, we used camera traps to survey marsh rabbits and free‐ranging cats at 84 sites in the National Key Deer Refuge, Big Pine Key, Florida, USA. We used dynamic occupancy models to determine factors associated with marsh rabbit occurrence, colonization, extinction, and the co‐occurrence of marsh rabbits and cats during a period of predator removal. Rabbit occurrence was positively related to freshwater habitat and patch size, but was negatively related to the number of individual cats detected at each site. Furthermore, marsh rabbit colonization was negatively associated with relative increases in the number of individual cats at each site between survey years. Cat occurrence was negatively associated with increasing distance from human developments. The probability of cat site extinction was positively related to a 2‐year trapping effort, indicating that predator removal reduced the cat population. Dynamic co‐occurrence models suggested that cats and marsh rabbits co‐occur less frequently than expected under random conditions, whereas co‐detections were site and survey‐specific. Rabbit site extinction and colonization were not strongly conditional on cat presence, but corresponded with a negative association. Our results suggest that while rabbits can colonize and persist at sites where cats occur, it is the number of individual cats at a site that more strongly influences rabbit occupancy and colonization. These findings indicate that continued predator management would likely benefit endangered small mammals as they recolonize restored habitats.

Management of multiple threats achieves meaningful koala conservation outcomes

Abstract Management actions designed to mitigate development or anthropogenic impacts on species of conservation concern are often implemented without quantifying the benefit to the species. It is often unclear what combinations and intensities of management actions are required to achieve meaningful conservation outcomes. We investigate whether disease and predator control can reverse population declines of koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus). Based on longitudinal monitoring of the epidemiological and demographic status of over 500 animals over 4 years, coupled with an intensive disease and predator management programme, we use survival analyses to estimate annual age‐specific survival rates and population growth, and simulations to quantify the benefit of these actions. Predation and disease accounted for 63% and 29% of mortality, respectively, across all years, with wild dog (dingoes or dingo‐hybrids: Canis dingo, C. dingo × Canis familiaris), carpet pythons (Morelia spilota) and domestic dogs (C. familiaris) accounting for 82%, 14% and 4% of confirmed predation mortalities, respectively. In the first 2 years, before disease and dog control had major impact, the population was declining rapidly with annual growth rates of 0.66 and 0.90. In the third and fourth years, after interventions had been fully implemented, the population growth rate had increased to 1.08 and 1.20. The intrinsic survival rate of joeys was 71.2% (excluding deaths resulting from the death of the mother). Adult survival rates varied as a function of sex, age and year. Even in a declining koala population, management actions can achieve meaningful conservation outcomes (population growth rates greater than one). However, benefits may be short‐lived in the absence of longer term strategies to manage threats. This work also identifies wild dogs as a major threat to koalas, highlighting the need to better understand how wild dog impacts vary in space and time. Policy implications. Offsetting policy that addresses habitat loss alone may achieve little or no meaningful benefit to declining koalas populations. Management must address suites of threats affecting these populations and ensure that the cumulative effects of these actions achieve positive population growth rates.

To Bait or Not to Bait: A Discrete Choice Experiment on Public Preferences for Native Wildlife and Conservation Management in Western Australia

Foxes and feral cats are invasive predators threating biodiversity in many places around the world. Managing these predators to protect threatened species should involve careful consideration of biological, geographic, economic, and social aspects to ensure informed and effective decision-making. This study investigates people's preferences for the ways in which foxes and feral cats are managed at a conservation site in Western Australia using a discrete choice experiment. We further aim to quantify the non-market values of two native threatened species protected by management; Numbats and Woylies. The attributes evaluated in the survey included: increased populations of Numbats and Woylies, cost of management, and a range of invasive feral predator management strategies (1080 baiting, fencing, trapping, and community engagement). Results show that respondents prefer a combination of management strategies over the strategy of 1080 baiting that is currently being implemented, particularly combinations that include trapping and community engagement. There is also strong public support for increased Numbat and Woylie populations. Willingness to pay was, on average, $21.76 for 100 Numbats and $7.95 for 1000 Woylies. Including images of the threatened species in the choice sets does not influence willingness-to-pay estimates. We further discuss how familiarity with the species influences value. Our results feed into the conservation decision making process about feral species management in the region.

Exploring wildlife predation in the Limpopo Province of South Africa: A double‐hurdle approach

AbstractPredation is a well‐known problem in South Africa with large losses in the small and large livestock sectors. Predation in the wildlife ranching industry has also become more of a concern, as the financial losses due to predation on valuable antelope species are large. Predation data for small, large, and scarce/colour‐variant antelope species were collected using a structured questionnaire from wildlife ranchers in the Limpopo province, South Africa. We explore the factors that influence predation on these species by determining whether the perceptions of predation and consequent managerial decisions affect predation. The use of nonlethal control methods can be successfully employed to reduce the probability of predation occurrences, however, a combination of lethal and nonlethal control methods were used to reduce the level of predation. The type of antelope species will determine the type of predation control method to be employed. Therefore, the antelope species should be taken into account when making predation management decisions.