Wildlife Predation Research Articles

Human–Wildlife Conflict among the Pastoral Communities of Southern Rangelands of Ethiopia: The Case of Yabello Protected Area

ABSTRACTThe objective of this study was to assess human–wildlife's conflict in the Yabello district protected area, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. The data were collected by using questionnaires, interviews, field observations, and secondary document analysis. The questionnaire was distributed to thirty households within and around the protected area. In addition, interviews were conducted with select local community representatives and office personnel.Uncontrolled management of grazing land, encroachment on the local communities, living settlement patterns near and within the protected area, lack of boundary demarcation and zoning, and increasing demand of the products found in the protected area are major causes of human–wildlife conflict in the Yabello protected area. Loss of livestock contributes to disturbances in the livelihood of local households, which in turn have a major impact on human–wildlife conflict in the local communities. Habitat disturbance and migration of wildlife are the serious byproducts of human–wildlife conflict. Predatory wildlife includes hyenas, foxes, and leopards. Crop-raiding animals are zebras, wild pigs, gerenuk, and monkeys, all of which also are negatively affected by human–wildlife conflict.

Core-shell LC–MS/MS method for quantification of second generation anticoagulant rodenticides diastereoisomers in rat liver in relationship with exposure of wild rats

Second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs), pesticides used worldwide to control rodent populations, exist in two diastereoisomer chemical species because they own two stereogenic centers. A core-shell LC-MS/MS multi-residue method for comprehensive quantitative analysis of the diastereoisomers of five SGARs as well as three first generation anticoagulant rodenticide molecules has been fully validated in liver of rats according to a bioanalytical guideline. A core-shell column (superficially porous particles) has been chosen for its ability to separate the diastereomers of bromadiolone, difenacoum, brodifacoum, flocoumafen and difethialone and for its robustness to rat liver extracts. The highly selective chromatographic separation of the diastereoisomers contributes to good signal to noise ratios and then enhances the sensitivity of the method compared to the ones of fully porous columns. An elution gradient has been optimized with 10mM ammonium acetate and acetonitrile as aqueous/organic mobile phase respectively. Triple quadrupole mass detector has been used to achieve specifity and LLOQ from 0.92 to 2.2ng/g for each diastereoisomer, or first generation anticoagulant rodenticides. Then we evidenced diastereoisomeric ratios in liver of rats issued from not controlled exposure of wild rats (Rattus norvegicus) trapped in a French Parisian park through a campaign of rodent eradication. We compared them to diastereoisomeric ratios in SGARs commercial baits that contain both isomers, and showed that one of the two diastereoiomers had nearly disappeared in liver of rats. The proportions of cis-bromadiolone and trans-difenacoum were really lowered compared to the baits: 5/7 and 9/12 rats had only trans-bromadiolone and cis-difenacoum hepatic residues respectively. Liver persistence of the two diastereoisomers of bromadiolone and difenacoum was different due to differences in their pharmacokinetics in wild rats. The new core-shell LC-MS/MS method is particularly well adapted for further exploration of diastereoisomers ratios in rodent and predatory wildlife biological samples in order to evaluate ecological consequences of actual baits, to explore new formulated baits with a good balance between efficacity (ability to kill rodents) and diastereoisomers persistence, and hopefully to mitigate exposure of non-target species.

Food puzzles for cats: Feeding for physical and emotional wellbeing.

Many pet cats are kept indoors for a variety of reasons (eg, safety, health, avoidance of wildlife predation) in conditions that are perhaps the least natural to them. Indoor housing has been associated with health issues, such as chronic lower urinary tract signs, and development of problem behaviors, which can cause weakening of the human-animal bond and lead to euthanasia of the cat. Environmental enrichment may mitigate the effects of these problems and one approach is to take advantage of cats' natural instinct to work for their food. In this article we aim to equip veterinary professionals with the tools to assist clients in the use of food puzzles for their cats as a way to support feline physical health and emotional wellbeing. We outline different types of food puzzles, and explain how to introduce them to cats and how to troubleshoot challenges with their use. The effect of food puzzles on cats is a relatively new area of study, so as well as reviewing the existing empirical evidence, we provide case studies from our veterinary and behavioral practices showing health and behavioral benefits resulting from their use.

Predation of wildlife by free-ranging domestic dogs in Polish hunting grounds and potential competition with the grey wolf

Although the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) is a ubiquitous exotic predator that can detrimentally affect natural environments, studies on their ecological impact are relatively scarce, particularly at a national scale. We exploited data derived from Polish Hunting Association reports to provide a national evaluation of rural free-ranging dogs in Poland. Our results demonstrate that free-ranging dogs are widespread and abundant, frequently killing wildlife and livestock in Poland and likely exerting intraguild competition with native carnivores such as grey wolves (Canis lupus). On average, hunting club records estimate that over 138,000 rural free-ranging dogs occurred annually in hunting grounds. In addition, nearly 3000 free-ranging greyhounds and their mixed breeds occurred annually on hunting grounds, although greyhound hunting has been banned in Poland and they are legally required to be restrained within fencing. On average, over 33,000 wild animals and 280 livestock were killed by free-ranging dogs on Polish hunting grounds annually. The number of both wild animals and livestock killed by dogs were strongly and positively correlated with the numbers of rural free-ranging dogs recorded on hunting grounds, reflective of their predation pressure. Also, the number of wild animals killed by dogs was positively correlated with estimates of population sizes and harvest levels of wildlife, reflective of prey availability. Dog predation, in conjunction with harvest by humans, may cause unsustainable off-take rates of some game species. Grey wolves, documented within 39 of the 49 Hunting Districts, ate similar prey as dogs, including ungulates and livestock, and killed dogs on hunting grounds, suggesting both resource and interference competition between these sympatric canids. This comprehensive analysis provides important information about the ecological impact of free-ranging dogs and recommendations for alternative legislative and management measures to control their impacts.

Understanding public perceptions of risk regarding outdoor pet cats to inform conservation action.

Free-ranging domestic cats (Felis catus) incur and impose risks on ecosystems and represent a complex issue of critical importance to biodiversity conservation and cat and human health globally. Prior social science research on this topic is limited and has emphasized feral cats even though owned cats often comprise a large proportion of the outdoor cat population, particularly in urban areas. To address this gap, we examined public risk perceptions and attitudes toward outdoor pet cats across varying levels of urbanization, including along the wildland-urban interface, in Colorado (U.S.A.), through a mail survey of 1397 residents. Residents did not view all types of risks uniformly. They viewed risks of cat predation on wildlife and carnivore predation on cats as more likely than disease-related risks. Additionally, risk perceptions were related to attitudes, prior experiences with cats and cat-wildlife interactions, and cat-owner behavior. Our findings suggest that changes in risk perceptions may result in behavior change. Therefore, knowledge of cat-related risk perceptions and attitudes could be used to develop communication programs aimed at promoting risk-aversive behaviors among cat owners and cat-management strategies that are acceptable to the public and that directly advance the conservation of native species.

Perception of fish farmers to wildlife predator attacks of fish ponds in Borgu Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria

The study assessed the perception of fish farmers to wildlife predators’ attack of fish ponds in Borgu Local Government area of Niger state, Nigeria. The study covered three wards; Bussa, Karabonde and Rafi which were purposively sampled. Questionnaire, personal interview and physical observation were employed to collect necessary data. A face to face questionnaire survey was carried out on a total of thirty-two (32) fish farmers and pond managers to elicit information on extent of predator’s activities by wildlife, and frequency of occurrence and period or season of predation. The result revealed that predation occurred both day and night. Most respondents (65.63%) attested to the predator attack in the fish farm. The most preferred prey size appeared to be fish fingerlings which were consumed wholly. Five (5) wildlife species include frog (Rana sp) 16.66%, wildcat (Felis silvestris) 8.3%, water snake (Grayia smithii) 11.66%, monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus) and birds like kingfisher( Alcedo sp) 26.66% were identified as the predators of fish. From the wildlife species identified, birds mostly attack fish in ponds in the study area. Wildlife predators including reptiles and amphibians are some of the numerous challenges to culture fisheries in the study area. However, the preventive measures and controls of wild animals attacked fish in farms are netting (59.38%) which is the best method to prevent predators from fish ponds, fencing (28.13%) and security guards (12.50%). In control measure, 68.75% confirmed that the physical method usually works better than biological and chemical control measures. Hence, its adoption for the management of the pest and predators is essential for sustainable culture fisheries in the study area.BIBECHANA 13 (2016) 29-37

Reconciling actual and perceived rates of predation by domestic cats.

The predation of wildlife by domestic cats (Felis catus) is a complex problem: Cats are popular companion animals in modern society but are also acknowledged predators of birds, herpetofauna, invertebrates, and small mammals. A comprehensive understanding of this conservation issue demands an understanding of both the ecological consequence of owning a domestic cat and the attitudes of cat owners. Here, we determine whether cat owners are aware of the predatory behavior of their cats, using data collected from 86 cats in two UK villages. We examine whether the amount of prey their cat returns influences the attitudes of 45 cat owners toward the broader issue of domestic cat predation. We also contribute to the wider understanding of physiological, spatial, and behavioral drivers of prey returns among cats. We find an association between actual prey returns and owner predictions at the coarse scale of predatory/nonpredatory behavior, but no correlation between the observed and predicted prey-return rates among predatory cats. Cat owners generally disagreed with the statement that cats are harmful to wildlife, and disfavored all mitigation options apart from neutering. These attitudes were uncorrelated with the predatory behavior of their cats. Cat owners failed to perceive the magnitude of their cats’ impacts on wildlife and were not influenced by ecological information. Management options for the mitigation of cat predation appear unlikely to work if they focus on “predation awareness” campaigns or restrictions of cat freedom.

Evidence of low toxicity of oil sands process-affected water to birds invites re-evaluation of avian protection strategies.

Exposure to water containing petroleum waste products can generate both overt and subtle toxicological responses in wildlife, including birds. Such exposure can occur in the tailings ponds of the mineable oil sands, which are located in Alberta, Canada, under a major continental flyway for waterfowl. Over the 40 year history of the industry, a few thousand bird deaths have been reported following contact with bitumen on the ponds, but a new monitoring programme demonstrated that many thousands of birds land annually without apparent harm. This new insight creates an urgent need for more information on the sublethal effects on birds from non-bitumen toxicants that occur in the water, including naphthenic acids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heavy metals and salts. Ten studies have addressed the effects of oil sands process-affected water (OSPW), and none reported acute or substantial adverse health effects. Interpretive caution is warranted, however, because nine of the studies addressed reclaimed wetlands that received OSPW, not OSPW ponds per se, and differences between experimental and reference sites may have been reduced by shared sources of pollution in the surrounding air and water. Two studies examined eggs of birds nesting >100 km from the mine sites. Only one study exposed birds directly and repeatedly to OSPW and found no consistent differences between treated and control birds in blood-based health metrics. If it is true that aged forms of OSPW do not markedly affect the health of birds that land briefly on the ponds, then the extensiveness of current bird-deterrent programmes is unwarranted and could exert negative net environmental effects. More directed research on bird health is urgently needed, partly because birds that land on these ponds subsequently migrate to destinations throughout North America where they are consumed by both humans and wildlife predators.

Interspecific and geographical differences in anticoagulant rodenticide residues of predatory wildlife from the Mediterranean region of Spain

We studied the prevalence of anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) in the liver of 344 individuals representing 11 species of predatory wildlife that were found dead in the Mediterranean region of Spain (Catalonia and Majorca Island). Six different ARs (brodifacoum, bromadiolone, difenacoum, flocoumafen, difethialone, warfarin) were found in the liver of 216 (62.8%) animals and >1 AR co-occurred in 119 individuals (34.6%). The occurrence of ARs was positively correlated with the human population density. Catalonia and Majorca showed similar prevalence of AR detection (64.4 and 60.4%, respectively), but a higher prevalence was found in the resident population of Eurasian scops owl (Otus scops) from Majorca (57.7%) compared to the migratory population from Catalonia (14.3%). Birds of prey had lower levels of bromadiolone than hedgehogs, whereas no difference was found for other ARs. The risk of SGAR poisoning in wild predators in NE Spain is believed to be elevated, because 23.3% of the individuals exhibited hepatic concentration of ARs exceeding 200ng/g.

A survey of the views of US veterinary teaching faculty to owned cat housing practices.

According to the American Pet Products Association, in the USA there are an estimated 86.4 million owned cats, and approximately 40% of these are allowed to roam outdoors. Little has been written about the contribution of owned cats to problems attributed to feral cats, including wildlife predation, spread of zoonotic diseases and overpopulation. A recent study found that 64% of cats have visited the veterinarian within the past year, suggesting frequent opportunity for veterinarians to communicate risks and benefits of indoor vs outdoor living. We conducted the following survey to evaluate current views about this role of veterinarians, by surveying veterinary school faculty (n = 158). Our objectives were to assess (i) the degree to which veterinary teaching faculty believe that the issue of clients maintaining owned cats indoors vs outdoors is appropriate for discussion with students within the veterinary school curriculum; (ii) the degree of agreement and understanding there is among the faculty as to the reasons that clients maintain cats either inside or outside the home; and (iii) the degree to which veterinary faculty believe owned cats that are allowed to go outdoors contribute to various identified problems. The results indicated that many participants believed that the discussion of maintaining cats indoors is relevant to the profession, that it belongs in the veterinary school curriculum, that they understand client motivations, that they feel that more practicing veterinarians should discuss cat housing practices with clients and that cat overpopulation continues to be a significant concern for owned cats being outdoors. Additional ways to help maintain the health and wellbeing of cats that are primarily housed indoors is briefly discussed, including through such means as environmental enrichment or by providing cats access to safe areas while outdoors.

Adverse outcome pathway and risks of anticoagulant rodenticides to predatory wildlife.

Despite a long history of successful use, routine application of some anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) may be at a crossroad due to new regulatory guidelines intended to mitigate risk. An adverse outcome pathway for ARs was developed to identify information gaps and end points to assess the effectiveness of regulations. This framework describes chemical properties of ARs, established macromolecular interactions by inhibition of vitamin K epoxide reductase, cellular responses including altered clotting factor processing and coagulopathy, organ level effects such as hemorrhage, organism responses with linkages to reduced fitness and mortality, and potential consequences to predator populations. Risk assessments have led to restrictions affecting use of some second-generation ARs (SGARs) in North America. While the European regulatory community highlighted significant or unacceptable risk of ARs to nontarget wildlife, use of SGARs in most EU member states remains authorized due to public health concerns and the absence of safe alternatives. For purposes of conservation and restoration of island habitats, SGARs remain a mainstay for eradication of invasive species. There are significant data gaps related to exposure pathways, comparative species sensitivity, consequences of sublethal effects, potential hazards of greater AR residues in genetically resistant prey, effects of low-level exposure to multiple rodenticides, and quantitative data on the magnitude of nontarget wildlife mortality.

Fear beyond predators

![Figure][1] Perceived threat. Fear complicates conservation. PHOTO: BARDROCK/WIKIMEDIA COMMONS In their Perspective, “Tolerance for predatory wildlife” (2 May, p. [476][2]), A. Treves and J. Bruskotter argue that when examining reasons for intolerance of and intention to kill predators, social factors (such as peer group norms and government-sanctioned predator killings) are more important than conventionally held views (such as measured or perceived threats to livelihoods). The authors use case studies on jaguars, wolves, lions, and bears to convincingly support their argument. With increased anthropogenic disturbance, species not traditionally viewed as predatory may respond increasingly aggressively toward people. Although attacks are rare, concerns about sharing landscapes with great apes may be motivated more by fear of physical aggression than other more common causes of provocation such as threats to livelihoods (i.e., crop damage). As with carnivores, tolerance by local people toward these large-bodied mammals is affected by deep-rooted social beliefs that can influence outcomes, including retaliatory killings. People's tolerance of wildlife can change quickly in response to shifting economic, demographic, and political conditions. To understand the potential for sustainable human-wildlife coexistence, human social change must be considered alongside changing wildlife behavior in response to human activities and across contexts (such as crop feeding, livestock depredation, and attacks on people) and species. To disentangle such complexities, conservation science must encourage collaborations between social and biological scientists. [1]: pending:yes [2]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1252690

Perfluoroalkyl acids in the Canadian environment: Multi-media assessment of current status and trends

In Canada, perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) have been the focus of several monitoring programs and research and surveillance studies. Here, we integrate recent data and perform a multi-media assessment to examine the current status and ongoing trends of PFAAs in Canada. Concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), and other long-chain perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs) in air, water, sediment, fish, and birds across Canada are generally related to urbanization, with elevated concentrations observed around cities, especially in southern Ontario. PFOS levels in water, fish tissue, and bird eggs were below their respective Draft Federal Environmental Quality Guidelines, suggesting there is low potential for adverse effects to the environment/organisms examined. However, PFOS in fish and bird eggs tended to exceed guidelines for the protection of mammalian and avian consumers, suggesting a potential risk to their wildlife predators, although wildlife population health assessments are needed to determine whether negative impacts are actually occurring. Long-term temporal trends of PFOS in suspended sediment, sediment cores, Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush), and Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) eggs collected from Lake Ontario increased consistently from the start of data collection until the 1990s. However, after this time, the trends varied by media, with concentrations stabilizing in Lake Trout and Herring Gull eggs, and decreasing and increasing in suspended sediment and the sediment cores, respectively. For PFCAs, concentrations in suspended sediment, sediment cores, and Herring Gulls generally increased from the start of data collection until present and concentrations in Lake Trout increased until the late 1990s and subsequently stabilized. A multimedia comparison of PFAA profiles provided evidence that unexpected patterns in biota of some of the lakes were due to unique source patterns rather than internal lake processes. High concentrations of PFAAs in the leachate and air of landfill sites, in the wastewater influent/effluent, biosolids, and air at wastewater treatment plants, and in indoor air and dust highlight the waste sector and current-use products (used primarily indoors) as ongoing sources of PFAAs to the Canadian environment. The results of this study demonstrate the utility of integrating data from different media. Simultaneous evaluation of spatial and temporal trends in multiple media allows inferences that would be impossible with data on only one medium. As such, more co-ordination among monitoring sites for different media is suggested for future sampling, especially at the northern sites. We emphasize the importance of continued monitoring of multiple-media for determining future responses of environmental PFAA concentrations to voluntary and regulatory actions.

Wildlife predation on livestock and poultry: implications for predator conservation in the rainforest of south-east Mexico

AbstractWe assessed wildlife predation on livestock and poultry and the implications for predator conservation in the most important rainforest areas of south-east Mexico. We estimated the economic impact of predation and identified variables correlated to predation frequency in four communities adjacent to Calakmul and Montes Azules Biosphere Reserves. We did participant observation and interviews with 161 residents during January–September 2010. We recorded 2,861 deaths of livestock and poultry from predation by wild carnivores over the previous 3 years. Opossums (n = 677 predation events), raptors (n = 676) and ocelots (n = 539) were responsible for the highest numbers of killings. Poultry constituted the main target of wild predators (n = 2,548 deaths). Sheep (n = 201 events) and cattle (167) were the most affected by large predators such as jaguarPanthera oncaand pumaPuma concolor. Economic losses from predation were estimated to be USD 55,600 over the 3 years in the four communities. Predation frequency was positively correlated with livestock numbers (r2 = 0.87, P < 0.05) but negatively associated with wild prey abundance (r2 = 0.96, P < 0.05). Better husbandry practices focused on the safety and location of livestock enclosures and on reducing overabundance of dogs and regulating hunting on wild prey in rural areas may help mitigating conflict between wild predators and residents in the rainforests of south-east Mexico.

Mercury trends in herring gull (Larus argentatus) eggs from Atlantic Canada, 1972–2008: Temporal change or dietary shift?

Mercury (Hg) is a pervasive contaminant that can adversely affect predatory wildlife. Bird eggs provide insights into breeding females' Hg burdens, and are easily collected and archived. We present data on Hg trends in herring gull (Larus argentatus) eggs from five sites in Atlantic Canada from 1972 to 2008. We found a significant decrease in Hg at Manawagonish Island, New Brunswick and Île du Corossol, Quebec, but after correcting Hg for dietary shifts using stable isotopes (δ15N), these trends disappeared. Decreasing temporal trends of stable isotopes in gull eggs were observed at four sites, suggesting shifts in gull diets. At Gull Island, Newfoundland, diet-adjusted Hg increased from 1977 to 1992, dropped sharply between 1992 and 1996, and rose again from 1996 to 2008. After adjusting Hg trends for dietary shifts of herring gulls, it appears that environmental Hg in coastal ecosystems has remained relatively constant at most sites in Atlantic Canada over the last 36 years.

High Exposure Rates of Anticoagulant Rodenticides in Predatory Bird Species in Intensively Managed Landscapes in Denmark

The extensive use of anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) for rodent control has led to widespread secondary exposure in nontarget predatory wildlife species. We investigated exposure rates and concentrations of five ARs in liver samples from five raptors and six owls from Denmark. A total of 430 birds were analysed. ARs were detected in 84-100 % of individual birds within each species. Multiple AR exposure was detected in 73 % of all birds. Average number of substances detected in individual birds was 2.2 with no differences between owls and raptors. Difenacoum, bromadiolone, and brodifacoum were the most prevalent substances and occurred in the highest concentrations. Second-generation ARs made up 96 % of the summed AR burden. Among the six core species (sample size >30), summed AR concentrations were lower in rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus) and long-eared owl (Asio otus) than in barn owl (Tyto alba), buzzard (B. buteo), kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), and tawny owl (Strix aluco). There was a strong tendency for seasonal variations in the summed AR concentration with levels being lowest during autumn, which is probably related to an influx of less-exposed migrating birds from northern Scandinavia during autumn. High hepatic AR residue concentrations (>100 ng/g wet weight), which have been associated with symptoms of rodenticide poisoning and increased mortality, were recorded high frequencies (12.9-37.4 %) in five of the six core species. The results suggest that the present use of ARs in Denmark, at least locally, may have adverse effects on reproduction and, ultimately, population status in some raptors and owls.

Labor costs and crop protection from wildlife predation: the case of elephants in Gabon

AbstractCrop raiding by wildlife decreases agricultural productivity and hinders efforts to reduce poverty throughout the world and especially in Africa. Efforts to reduce crop raiding in developing countries generally involve prescriptive “low‐cost” protection methods at the level of the individual farm, under the assumption that monetary capital and knowledge are the principal limiting factors in farmers’ adoption of protection methods. This article highlights the importance of considering labor costs in addition to monetary costs when assessing the adoptability of protection strategies. Benefit‐cost analysis is used to inform a theoretical model of the likelihood of farmer adoption of methods to protect crops against elephants in Gabon. Supported by empirical findings from a binomial logit model of farmers’ protection decisions, this analysis elucidates the low rate of adoption for known protection methods in Gabon. While the empirical data are specific to Gabon, this analysis frames a reflection process regarding labor optimization and alternative strategies that applies broadly.

Managing Feral Cats on a University's Campuses: How Many Are There and Is Sterilization Having an Effect?

Worldwide domestic and feral cat (Felis catus) numbers have increased. Concerns regarding high populations of feral cats in urban areas include wildlife predation, public nuisance, and disease. This study aimed to estimate the size of the feral cat population on 5 campuses of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, to determine whether sterilization has an effect and to make management recommendations. The study used both the total count and mark-recapture methods to estimate the feral cat population on each campus. The study chose a noninvasive method of taking photographs to “mark” individuals and record those who were sterilized. The study estimated a total of 186 cats on all campuses and density at 161 cats km−2. There was a negative relationship between sterilization and numbers. Sites with higher sterilization showed a lower proportion of younger cats. At the average sterilization of 55%, the population, according to predictions, would remain stable at fecundity, survival, and immigration rates reported by cat caretakers. However, caretakers underestimated cat abundance by 7 ± 37 SD%. Caretakers' feral cat sterilization and feeding programs appear to provide a service to the university community. Key management recommendations were to increase sterilization to 90% to reduce the population over the long term and to raise funds to support the costs incurred by voluntary cat caretakers.

The Impact of Anthropogenic Factors on the Behavior, Reproduction, Management and Welfare of Urban, Free-Roaming Cat Populations

ABSTRACTFree-roaming domestic cats constitute an integral part of many urban ecosystems worldwide; their presence results from undisturbed natural reproduction, abandonment by pet owners, and abundant food resources. These cats present controversial and emotional issues regarding management of their high densities, hygiene and epidemiologic risks to humans, and predation of wildlife. Improved urban cat management requires greater knowledge of the anthropogenic factors affecting free-roaming cat populations. In this study, we explored the relationship between caretaker treatment levels and the socio-economics of the caretakers and neighborhoods, and free-roaming cat reproduction management, behavior, and physiology in urban populations. Eight free-roaming cat feeding groups, from eight neighborhoods in Tel Aviv, Israel, were observed for six months. Neighborhoods displayed differences in socio-economic status and housing type, and cat feeding groups reflected different levels of caretaker treatment with regard to neutering, physical interaction with the cats, and medical treatment. We examined whether agonistic behaviors, neutering rates, pregnancy rates, and cortisol levels of the cats differed between groups. We found a strong socio-economic effect on neutering and pregnancy rates: low-income neighborhoods had lower neutering and higher pregnancy rates. Higher-level caretaking was associated with lowered aggression, as well as lower cortisol levels of neutered females. Additionally, analysis of data from 622 registered cat feeding groups from north (high-income) and south (low-income) Tel Aviv, obtained from the municipal veterinary department, revealed a socio-economic influence on reproduction management. Our results indicate that, in urban environments, both the neighborhood's socio-economic status and the caretaker treatment level affect management of these cat populations. We conclude that, to improve cat management success, municipalities should consider addressing these socio-economic differences, while, just as importantly, raising awareness and encouraging caretaker involvement in neutering efforts. Improved caretaker treatment levels can lead to reduced cat aggression, with consequent improved cat welfare and reduced noise disturbance to humans.

The influence of neighbourhood socio-demographic factors on densities of free-roaming cat populations in an urban ecosystem in Israel

Context Free-roaming cat populations are abundant in many urban ecosystems worldwide. Their management is necessary for reasons of public health, risk of wildlife predation and cat welfare related to their high densities. Trap–neuter–return (TNR) programs are now the main cat population control strategy in urban areas. However, the efficacy of such strategies is difficult to evaluate without more precise estimates of cat numbers and a better knowledge of anthropogenic influences on cat densities. Aims We aimed to estimate free-roaming cat population numbers and density in residential neighbourhoods in Tel Aviv, and to investigate population densities in relation to several socio-demographic factors. Methods We compared free-roaming cat population densities in terms of neighbourhood socio-economic status (SES), housing type, human density and percentage of residential and commercial areas. Five consecutive cat density surveys were carried out in eight residential neighbourhoods in Israel – four in northern Tel Aviv, characterised by high SES, and four in southern Tel Aviv, characterised by low SES. The photographic capture–recapture technique was used and abundance estimates were evaluated using the MARK program. Regression analyses examined the effect of socio-demographic factors on cat densities. Key results Neighbourhood socio-economic status significantly influenced kitten density and proportion of neutered cats in the total population: southern neighbourhoods had higher kitten densities and lower neutered cat proportions compared with northern neighbourhoods. Higher adult cat densities featured in mixed profile neighbourhoods of residential and commercial areas compared with solely residential neighbourhoods. Using the linear equation from the regression analysis the entire free-roaming cat population in Tel Aviv was extrapolated to 39 000 cats. Conclusions The results suggest that adult cat and kitten densities depend in part on socio-demographic factors, specifically on neighbourhood socio-economic status and the proportion of residential area. Implications Our findings in Tel Aviv may be used to improve cat management efforts, by focusing on neighbourhoods hosting higher cat densities; as well as to improve cat welfare by focusing on neighbourhoods with lower neutering rates and higher kitten densities. Finally, the current study may serve as a basis for studies in other cities with similar cat overpopulation problems.