Output Power Research Articles

Study on photovoltaic/thermal application for water desalination and electricity power generation using high thermal conducting materials

Our research focus is the enhancement of potable water yield and Output Power (PO) which is achieved through by means of adding three metals like Copper, Aluminium and Iron. The composition comprises of Aluminium-0.17 %, Copper-2.42 % and Iron-2.64 % in volume percentage. Because of the fact that the samples contain high thermalproperties such as thermalconductivity and thermalexpansion it stores heat as an energy and delivers it into the fluid. The daily yield of solar-still is about 1.5 times the conventional solar-still that is the yield is increased from 1.30Ltr on a day to 1.90Ltr. This states that by increasing the amount of heat stored and heat transferred one could make the standard PV/T into a more reliable and cost-efficient one. The power production in the proposed PV panel seems to be 5 % higher than that of conventional PV panels. The power output is evidently increased from 48.4 Watts to 49.9 Watts. The net-profit of water produced per day in proposed system is found to be in the range of (0.3960–0.4143) USD but conventional one is (0.2562–0.2732) USD. The payback period is found to be lower for proposed setup it is only (240.9–259.15) days which is very profitable than that of the conventional setup is (328.5–357.7) days of payback period.

Experimental and numerical modeling of photovoltaic modules temperature under varying ambient conditions

In this work, comprehensive three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics simulation, of fluid flow and heat transfer phenomena around a free-standing polycrystalline silicon photovoltaic module is carried out. The objective is to provide accurate calculation of module’s temperature as a key parameter to estimate its power output. Therefore, experiments were conducted at the university of El Oued, south-east Algeria, to collect the necessary dataset for simulations. Considering different heat transfer mechanisms, modeling absorbed solar energy within the cells, and after mesh refinement study and model validation, simulations were performed and different parameters have been investigated. Results show that more accurate module temperature (Tback) estimation can be achieved based on numerical simulations. It was also found that numerical simulation overcome other models from literature and provides better results, achieving an R2 of 0.995 and a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.822. Results also indicate that, solar radiation (G), ambient temperature (Ta) and wind speed (Ws) tend to have the major impact on Tback, an increase of 100W/m2 in G can produce an increase of 4°C in Tback at low wind speeds, and about 2.4°C for relatively higher Ws. Ta also tends to yield linear increase in Tback, expecting 5.8°C rise, for 6°C increase in Ta at 700W/m2 and 1m/s of solar radiation and wind speed, respectively. Additionally, a regression-based model was proposed for engineering applications, providing accurate results with an R2 of 0.989, a MAE of 1.009, which is 10% more accurate than the best model from literature.

Achieving broadband NIR-I to NIR-II emission in layer-structured Mg4Nb2O9:Cr3+,Yb3+ phosphor for multifunctional applications

Broadband near-infrared (NIR) phosphor-converted light-emitting diodes (pc-LEDs) have garnered unprecedented attention in photonic, optoelectronic and biological applications. Here, an efficient broadband NIR phosphor Mg4Nb2O9:Cr3+ was achieved. Excited by 455 nm blue light, the Mg4Nb2O9:Cr3+ phosphor exhibited a maximum peak at 863 nm with a relatively wide full width at half maximum (FWHM) of approximately 178 nm and the internal quantum efficiency (IQE) was measured to be 94 %. The observed broadband emission in the NIR range can be attributed to two distinct Cr3+ centers within the Mg4Nb2O9 structure, namely Mg2+ and Mg2+-Mg2+ dimer, which was confirmed through luminescence, decay kinetic analysis and density function theory (DFT) calculations. To further broaden the NIR emission, Yb3+ was co-doped with Cr3+ in Mg4Nb2O9. Benefited from the efficient energy transfer from Cr3+ to Yb3+, the codoped Mg4Nb2O9:Cr3+, Yb3+ shows a bandwidth of 223 nm and IQE of 86.4 %. The pc NIR-LED device incorporating this phosphor achieved a NIR output power of 131.6 mW at input current of 400 mA, with a photoelectric conversion efficiency of 44.2 %. Finally, the constructed NIR-LED demonstrated multifunctional applications in non-destructive detection and information encryption.

A dual ultra-wideband rectenna with a compact conical antenna for RF energy harvesting from S and C bands

The current research introduces a novel dual ultra-wideband rectenna that has been specifically devised for the S and C bands. The rectenna configuration being presented demonstrates the potential to efficiently capture energy from 1.5 GHz to 4.65 GHz, and 5.55 GHz–7.85 GHz. It is noteworthy to mention that the bandwidths (BW) corresponding to these frequency ranges are 3.15 GHz and 2.3 GHz, correspondingly. The envisioned rectenna is designed to cater to a selection of five distinct commercial bands. The frequencies under consideration include 1.8 GHz, UTMS 2.1 GHz, 5G 3.5 GHz, 4.5 GHz, and 5.8 GHz, which fall within the mid band range for 5G technology. Notably, the extended S-band and C band are also included within this range, catering specifically to 5G applications. For the purpose of rectification, a solitary HSMS 2850 Schottky diode has been selected. The maximum recorded Conversion Efficiency (CE) achieved at 1.8 GHz, 2.1 GHz, 3.5 GHz, 4.5 GHz, and 5.8 GHz corresponds to CE values of 67 %, 65 %, 77 %, 71 %, and 71 %, respectively. These CE measurements were obtained under varying input power levels (IPL) of −6 dBm, 4 dBm, 4 dBm, 2 dBm, and 9 dBm, respectively. The rectenna under consideration is designed to operate across five distinct frequency bands. Notably, the CE exceeds 65 % across all of these frequency bands. Consequently, the rectenna exhibits a higher output power. As a result, this modification makes it appropriate for supplying energy to low-power electronic equipment.

Pengaplikasian Panel Surya dan Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) untuk Menggerakkan Pompa Tanaman Hidroponik sebagai Sumber Energi Terbarukan

Solar panels are renewable energy which is very useful for agricultural needs to meet electricity needs, one of which is its application in agriculture, namely as a pump driver for hydroponic plants. Hydroponics is farming with an emphasis on meeting the nutritional needs of plants using water as a medium with a nutrient solution as fertilizer. In the hydroponic system the pump must be on continuously, for this reason the Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) tool is used to substitute the electrical energy of the State Electricity Company (PLN) with the electrical energy of solar panels in the event of a power outage from the State Electricity Company (PLN) which aims to drain nutrient water. This research aims to apply solar panels to a hydroponic plant system and apply the Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) tool as a substitute for the State Electric Company's (PLN) electrical energy and solar panels. This research was carried out on Jalan Polonia no.11 fresh water east, North Padang District, Padang City, West Sumatra in January – March 2024, with the initial stages (1) preparation, (2) solar panel assembly, (3) analysis of test results , (4) preparation of reports. The results of this research can determine the power output required by solar panels as a renewable energy source as well as the application of the Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) in hydroponic plant cultivation.

Design and performance evaluation of Front glass-covered photovoltaics-thermal hybrid system for enhanced electrical output and hot water production

Proof of concept is established for the thermal management of PV modules for the simultaneous benefit of electrical and thermal efficiency. It was achieved by designing the controlled open-loop water-based hybrid PV-T system and demonstrated for thermal management of 150W photovoltaic panel at natural solar conditions. In this integrated front glass-covered PV-T hybrid (IFG-PV-T) system, the PV panel is clipped between the front glass and rear aluminium collector without causing any permanent changes in the existing panel. The flow of water from the source tank is controlled by automated solenoid valve assembly coupled with thermocouples. The solenoid operational temperature is fixed at 40°C to controlled the PV surface temperature at an optimum range to mitigate the adverse effect on voltage and current output. The water layer thickness in the front glass box is optimized to filter the maximum infrared radiations and the collector's toughened glass feature allows the maximum light transmittance with super safety. The performance of the IFG-PV-T system has been evaluated in terms of variation in open circuit voltage, short circuit current, maximum power output, electric and thermal efficiency under the natural solar insolation for a week. Experimental investigations revealed that the open-circuit voltage is increased by ∼16.1 % with IFG-PV-T as compared to conventional PV panel. The increment can be attributed to the synergy of the front glass collector and solenoid valve operation at 40oC that regulates PV surface temperature and boost the current output. These factors have ameliorated the electrical efficiency of IFG-PV-T compared to conventional PV panel. The average thermal efficiency was 39.4 ​% wherein the IFG-PV-T system provides ∼100 ​L of hot water (38–41 ​°C) per day. The present controlled loop operation system and collector configuration have proven their significance for electrical power increment and concomitantly able to deliver moderate hot water which can be useful for any household or commercial application.

Research on the kinetics characteristics and in-cylinder combustion of opposed rotary piston engine for different power output modes

As a new type of internal combustion engine, opposed rotary piston (ORP) engine has the advantages of simple structure and high working frequency, and can achieve high power density. Consequently, it stands as an ideal power source for hybrid power systems and unmanned aerial vehicles. The ORP engine has different power output modes, corresponding to different piston rotation and volume evolutions of combustion chamber. However, the effect of power output modes on kinetics characteristics and in-cylinder combustion of ORP engines are still uncovered. In this paper, the kinematic model of an ORP engine is established for scenarios involving power output by different shafts (Shaft 1 and Shaft 3). Meanwhile, the piston rotation patterns and cylinder volume variations are investigated correspondingly. Further, three-dimensional numerical model of the ORP engine is established, enabling analysis of in-cylinder combustion characteristics, engine performance, as well as nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions. The results indicate that the volume variations of all cylinders follow a consistent pattern under the power output by Shaft 3. A pair of opposed cylinders features longer durations of intake and expansion strokes, and shorter durations of compression and exhaust strokes, the other pair of combustion chambers is the opposite under the power output by Shaft 1. The engine demonstrates a charging efficiency of 95.36 %, with corresponding indicated thermal efficiency and indicated power output of 38.08 % and 40.9 kW, respectively. The two adjacent cylinders present significantly different operation processes in the case of the power output by Shaft 1, achieving charging efficiencies of 94.29 % and 89.11 %, respectively, with the indicated thermal efficiency of 34.49 % and 31.60 %. The corresponding minimum indicated specific fuel consumption under the two power output modes are 211.7 g/kW∙h and 243.7 g/kW∙h, respectively, accompanied by NOx emission factors of 25.3 g/kW∙h and 17.6 g/kW∙h. With the given range of ignition timing, a trade-off relationship exists between the engine performance and NOx emissions. The power density of the case of power output by Shaft 3 is superior to that of Shaft 1.

Improving Output Power of a Torsional-Flutter Harvester in Stochastic Thunderstorms by Duffing - Van Der Pol Restoring Torque

Abstract Wind energy harvesters are usually designed to operate in the low wind speed range. They rely on smaller swept areas, as a complement to larger horizontal-axis wind turbines. A torsional-flutter-based apparatus is investigated herein to extract wind energy. A nonlinear hybrid restoring toque mechanism, installed at equally spaced supports, is used to produce energy through limit-cycle vibration. Energy conversion and storage from the wind flow are enabled by eddy currents. The apparatus is used during thunderstorm outflows to explore the efficiency in non-ideal wind conditions. The thunderstorm flow model accounts for both non-stationary turbulence and slowly varying mean speed, replicating thunderstorm's intensification and decay stages. This paper evolves from a recent study to examine stochastic stability. More Specifically, the output power is a random process that is derived numerically. Various thunderstorm features and variable apparatus configurations are evaluated. Numerical investigations confirm the detrimental effect of non-ideal, thunderstorms on harvester performance with, on average, an adverse increment of operational speed (about +30\%). Besides nonlinear damping, the benign flutter-prone effect is controlled by the square of the flapping angle. Since flapping amplitudes are moderate at sustained flutter, activation of the apparatus is delayed and exacerbated by the non-stationary outflow and aeroelastic load features. Finally, efficiency is carefully investigated by quantification of output power and “quality factor”.

Nonlinear Matlab/Simulink-Based Mathematical Modeling of Solar Photovoltaic Modules for Power Generation

Solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays comprised of modules are the most important power conversion elements of solar PV-generating systems. Because of the nonlinear characteristics of the solar PV array, determining its operating curves under various operating conditions is a laborious and expensive process. To overcome these barriers, engineers have updated multiple engineering software platforms, including Matlab and Simulink, to incorporate standardized and simplified solar panel designs. Nevertheless, these models are unsuitable for implementation in hybrid energy systems due to their intuitive nature and the need to manually adjust specific system parameters. Consequently, this article outlines a systematic process for simulating photovoltaic cells, modules, and arrays utilizing Matlab and Simulink. The reference model utilised is a 100-watt solar panel. Additionally, the operational characteristics of PV arrays under a broad spectrum of physical parameters and operating conditions are investigated. The simulation investigation is conducted for three distinct weather scenario conditions: cloudless days, days with moderate clouds, and days with heavy overcast conditions. When solar irradiation falls from 1 KW/m2 to 100 W/m2, the resulting voltage, current, and output power all decrease. The output power and voltage increase slightly as the temperature decreases, but the output current from solar PV panels remains approximately constant. The I-V and P-V curves of the solar photovoltaic module are significantly influenced when the shunt resistance changes from 1000 Ω to 0.1 Ω, resulting in a noticeable decrease in power output.

Experimental and simulation of a tension-like nonlinear piezoelectric energy harvester

This article proposes a low-frequency and efficient tension-like nonlinear piezoelectric energy harvester, which increases the harvesting performance of the harvester by swinging the support frame. Firstly, design the structure of the harvester and draw a physical model. Secondly, finite element models are used to simulate and analyze the structure’s dynamic characteristics. Finally, make an experimental prototype of the harvester and explore the power generation characteristics of the device through experiments. The results indicate that the harvester has two natural frequencies under low-frequency conditions. The energy harvester has the optimal external resistance to achieve peak output power. The greater the excitation acceleration, the greater the total output power value of the energy harvester. When the mass of the mass block is 3.7 g and the excitation acceleration is 0.4 g, the total output power value of the energy harvester is 3.88 mW, and the harvesting frequency band is wide, indicating excellent output performance of the harvester. The experimental results of the energy harvester device are consistent with the simulation results, fully verifying the correctness of the experiment and simulation. This piezoelectric energy harvester can efficiently harvest vibration energy at low frequencies, providing a good prospect for supplying power to microelectronic devices.

Intermittent sequential pneumatic compression reduces post-exercise hemodilution and enhances perceptual recovery without improving subsequent cycling performance

Abstract Purpose The present study aims to evaluate the effects of intermittent sequential pneumatic compression (ISPC) in the short-term recovery of a repeated sprint interval exercise, including the assessment of power output performance, hematocrit, legs water, and perceptual recovery. Methods A randomized, counterbalanced, crossover design was conducted. Sixteen healthy trained individuals (F=7, M=9; 27.7 ± 9.4 years; BMI 22.3 ± 2.9) performed two trials of a cycling fatiguing exercise, followed by a recovery phase (ISPC or Sham), and a subsequent performance assessment exercise to evaluate the effects of ISPC in post-exercise recovery. Results There were no significant differences in cycling performance comparing both recovery modes. However, the decrease in the hematocrit levels after the recovery phase was less exacerbated in the ISPC condition compared to Sham (44.03 ± 1.33 vs. 42.38 ± 1.33 %; p = 0.047; d = 0.310). Likewise, the total quality recovery (TQR) was higher after the recovery in the ISPC condition (15.94 ± 0.16 vs. 14.75 ± 0.12 points; p = 0.045; d = 2.125), although no differences were shown previously in power output performance (371.8 ± 22.2 [46.5] vs. 372.4 ± 21.8 [47.2] W; p = 0.986) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) (17.69 ± 0.41 vs. 17.56 ± 0.31; p = 0.700). Conclusions Contrary to our hypothesis, the application of intermittent sequential pneumatic compression after high-intensity exercise reduces the post-exercise hemodilution response and increases perceptual recovery. However, power output was similar between conditions, challenging the effectiveness of this recovery method in a short-term intervention.

Absolute measurement of vacuum ultraviolet fluxes from inductively coupled plasmas via metal surface photoemission currents

Quantifying vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) fluxes typically requires vacuum-compatible spectrometers and is often associated with significant cost and effort. A simple technique for the absolute measurement of local VUV fluxes from plasmas using the photoemission from a set of coated metal plates, is described. The radiant power from a 13.56 MHz hydrogen plasma operating at 40–87 mTorr and with an radio frequency (RF) input power from 100 to 120 W was investigated by irradiating a set of 2 cm diameter Au, Ag and Cu plates. The variation in photoemission currents was compared with the photoelectric yield curves to estimate the absolute flux incident on the surfaces in the 113–190 nm range. The measured fluxes were found to have an uncertainty of 5%–30% when compared with the VUV spectrometer measurements. The VUV output power was found to have a maximum at a pressure of 70–80 mTorr and to increase with RF power. In all cases, the VUV output power was measured to be approximately 12%–16% of the RF input power to the matching network, in good agreement with spectroscopy results.

The realization of the simultaneous wireless information and power transfer with the laser energy transform

Laser Charging means high energy laser beam to irradiate the solar cell to gain electricity power through photovoltaic generation. This kind of wireless energy transform way fits the IoT and other low energy satiation with the benefit of long-distance transmission. In this paper, we present a new way of information transferring while energy is gained which is called Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer. The main idea is to switch the laser device output power to generate the different PV current values, the dual level of laser power decides two ranges of the value. We imitate the On-Off Keying (OOK) named Low-High Keying(LHK) which turns the information into the energy code with a high or low current value. The issue of information coding is also presented with an example. And the application also provided the realization presented. The new method provides a brand way to Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power transfer without any extra equipment by contrast with others. It's suited for the long-distance, low power and limited information-connected occasions.

Integrating detection and degradation of bisphenol A by photocatalytic fuel cell-driven photoelectrochemical sensor

To ensure food safety and environmental protection, it is crucial to rapidly identify and remove bisphenol A (BPA), a plasticizer commonly used in the inner lining of food containers and beverage packaging. Here, a photocatalytic fuel cell (PFC)-integrated self-powered photoelectrochemical (PEC) sensor is constructed. Unlike conventional single PEC or PFC sensors, this PFC-integrated PEC sensor relies on not only the difference in Fermi energy levels between photoanode and photocathode but also charge accumulation resulted from the oxidation of BPA by photogenerated holes. Consequently, this sensor achieved a remarkable maximum output power (Pmax) of 8.58 μW cm−2, as well as a high sensitivity, wide linear detection range (0.1–200 μM), low detection limit (0.05 μM), great stability, reproducibility, and real sample detection capability. This work integrates PFC and PEC technologies successfully for the rapid identification and efficient removal of BPA.

Compact Low Loss Ribbed Asymmetric Multimode Interference Power Splitter

Optical power splitters (OPSs) are utilized extensively in integrated photonic circuits, drawing significant interest in research on power splitters with adjustable splitting ratios. This paper introduces a compact, low-loss 1 × 2 asymmetric multimode interferometric (MMI) optical power splitter on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) platform. The device is simulated using the finite difference method (FDM) and eigenmode expansion solver (EME). It is possible to attain various output power splitting ratios by making the geometry of the MMI central section asymmetric relative to the propagation axis. Six distinct optical power splitters are designed with unconventional splitting ratios in this paper, which substantiates that the device can achieve any power splitter ratios (PSRs) in the range of 95:5 to 50:50. The dimensions of the multimode section were established at 2.9 × (9.5–10.9) μm. Simulation results show a range of unique advantages of the device, including a low extra loss of less than 0.4 dB, good fabrication tolerance, and power splitting ratio fluctuation below 3% across the 1500 nm to 1600 nm wavelength span.

Polyoxometalate-based plasmonic electron sponge membrane for nanofluidic osmotic energy conversion.

Nanofluidic membranes have demonstrated great potential in harvesting osmotic energy. However, the output power densities are usually hampered by insufficient membrane permselectivity. Herein, we design a polyoxometalates (POMs)-based nanofluidic plasmonic electron sponge membrane (PESM) for highly efficient osmotic energy conversion. Under light irradiation, hot electrons are generated on Au NPs surface and then transferred and stored in POMs electron sponges, while hot holes are consumed by water. The stored hot electrons in POMs increase the charge density and hydrophilicity of PESM, resulting in significantly improved permselectivity for high-performance osmotic energy conversion. In addition, the unique ionic current rectification (ICR) property of the prepared nanofluidic PESM inhibits ion concentration polarization effectively, which could further improve its permselectivity. Under light with 500-fold NaCl gradient, the maximum output power density of the prepared PESM reaches 70.4 W m-2, which is further enhanced even to 102.1 W m-2 by changing the ligand to P5W30. This work highlights the crucial roles of plasmonic electron sponge for tailoring the surface charge, modulating ion transport dynamics, and improving the performance of nanofluidic osmotic energy conversion.

Sodium alginate/carbon nanotube energy harvesting fibers: Axial functional group gradient and moist-electric performance

Moist-electric generation, a green and environmentally friendly energy harvesting technology, is undoubtedly one of the effective methods to alleviate energy shortages and environmental damage. However, the lack of fiber-like moist-electric generators (MEGs) that combine continuous power generation and high electrical output performance has constrained the development of moist-electric in the fields of flexible wearable and self-power supplies. In this work, sodium alginate (SA)/multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) fibers with axial heterogeneous (axi-he) of oxygen-containing functional groups (Ocfgs) are prepared through a mold forming method in assistance with the coagulation process. The interaction between axi-he MEG and moisture is investigated by analyzing the electrical signal changes of dried MEG under moisture stimulation. The maximum output voltage and current of axi-he MEG can reach 0.35 V and 1.92 μA under the stimulation of moisture. Based on the regulation of Ocfgs, axi-he MEG has a continuous high moist-electric performance and environmental adaptability. The maximum output power density (Pmo) of axi-he MEG with a length of only 2 cm can reach 27.37 μW cm–2 at RH = 90 %, which exceeds most of the MEGs reported in literature. Meanwhile, a continuous output voltage of 0.33–0.37 V for more than 15 h can be obtained from this axi-he MEG. Thus, the axi-he MEG from Ocfg distribution design and mold forming method provides a new way of clean energy generation using moisture from the ambient environment, exhibiting enormous potential in energy supply for Internet of Things (IoT) devices.

Experimental study of taper shape bistable beam for improved vibration energy harvesting

Unwanted vibrations cause discomfort and affect the accuracy of the machinery. Vibrations of low frequency (<30 Hz) are usually inutile. Various researchers focus on harvesting and enhancing energy output through low-frequency vibrations. This paper focuses on improving energy harvesting from low-frequency vibration sources through taper shape (TAP) bistable beam fabricated using thin Piezoelectric Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film sandwiched between thin copper and aluminium films on both sides. Voltage power output through a PVDF film depends on the film’s strain distribution; hence, in this study, five different beam designs are studied for strain distribution through the ANSYS workbench. Further, an experimental harmonic analysis study for voltage output is performed on rectangular beam (RECT) and TAP beam for both straight and bistable configuration using three different harmonic input conditions, which concluded that the voltage output for the TAP beam is much more than that of the RECT beam, with a much more significant voltage output increase in bistable conditions for all three harmonic input conditions.

Evaluation of start-up characteristics for heat pipe-cooled nuclear reactor coupled with recuperated open-air brayton cycle using hardware-in-the-loop

The heat pipe-cooled nuclear reactor (HPR) holds great importance for the low-carbon transition period and can be applied flexibly and stably in numerous scenarios. However, studies on the dynamic performance of the HPR coupled with the open-air Brayton cycle (OBC) are scarce, and achieving a balance between economy and accuracy has proven challenging. In this work, a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) method is proposed and implemented for the coupled HPR-OBC prototype by combining the benefits of experimental measurements and numerical simulations. A sodium heat pipe test rig is heated in the real world, while neutronics and OBC dynamics are synchronously solved using Simulink models. A transient HIL test lasting for 12000 s is conducted to explore the start-up process of HPR-OBC. The coupled system successfully reaches steady-state by regulating reactivity and shaft speed. The results indicate a strong coupling effect between the shaft speed, the heat transfer rate of the heat pipes, and the air flow state in the OBC. The turbomachine operates within reasonable regions and no surge or choke phenomena occur. The final reached OBC efficiency is 20 %, and the generated electricity power output is 0.16 MWe.

Edge-Terminated AlGaN/GaN/AlGaN Multi-Quantum Well Impact Avalanche Transit Time Sources for Terahertz Wave Generation

Edge-Terminated AlGaN/GaN/AlGaN Multi-Quantum Well Impact Avalanche Transit Time Sources for Terahertz Wave Generation