State Power Research Articles

Face consciousness: the impact of gift packaging shape on consumer perception

Purpose This study aims to shed new light on the effect of gift packaging shape, specifically the distinction between horizontal and vertical orientations, on the face consciousness of both gift givers and recipients. The underlying mechanism of the main effect is examined, focusing on the perception of social status symbols. In addition, downstream outcome variables were included in the study to explore the effects of gift package shape on willingness to buy (WTB) and word-of-mouth (WOM) in the giver and receiver contexts, respectively. Furthermore, these effects were repeatedly verified in both China and the USA, revealing the significance of cultural differences. The study also investigated the moderating effects of an individual’s power state (low or high power) on the giver’s face consciousness. Design/methodology/approach Six studies were conducted to address the research objectives. Study 1 compared the gift givers’ face consciousness of a gift when presented with vertical package shapes versus horizontal. Subsequently, Study 2 investigated whether consumers’ perception of social status symbols mediates the effect of gift package shape on gift givers’ face consciousness. Study 3a expanded the conceptual model to include the downstream outcome variable of WTB in the context of gift-giving. Study 3b was validated with American participants, revealing the influence of cultural background differences on face consciousness. Study 4 introduced a gift-receiving context to investigate the chain-mediated effects of gift package shapes on consumer WOM. Lastly, Study 5 critically examined the boundary effect of personal power states on the interaction between the gift givers’ face consciousness and WTB. Findings The results indicate that gift givers and recipients attribute higher face consciousness to gifts with vertical package shapes compared to horizontal ones. In addition, consumers’ perception of gifts as status symbols was the underlying mechanism driving the impact of gift packaging shape on face consciousness. Furthermore, the face consciousness for gift packages of vertical shape was enhanced when people were in lower-power states as opposed to higher-power states, subsequently leading to an increase in the WTB. Research limitations/implications The research is limited to an online virtual brand study; future field studies could be conducted to enhance the authenticity of the participants’ gift-giving experience and the overall external validity of the studies. In addition, gender-based stereotypes and the relationship between the giver and the receiver (transactional or intimate) may also influence the relationship between gift package shapes and face consciousness. Practical implications The practical implications of this research focus on three points. First, gift brand managers should strategically employ vertical package shapes to signal high-end attributes and evoke face consciousness among consumers, aligning with the psychology of both givers and recipients. Second, managers must consider consumers’ power states in gift-giving scenarios, tailoring packaging recommendations to the dynamics between givers and recipients to maximize market share. Last, cultural differences in face consciousness, particularly between Asian and Western cultures, necessitate that managers adapt packaging designs to respect and enhance the social status of both givers and recipients in culturally sensitive ways. These findings underscore the importance of understanding and integrating consumer psychology, power dynamics, and cultural nuances into gift packaging strategies to boost market share. Originality/value The research contributes to understanding the impact of gift packaging shape on the perception of face consciousness among both gift givers and recipients. It highlights the mediating role of social status symbols and extends its scope by examining downstream effects such as WTB and WOM. It explores individual power states as a moderating factor, revealing how personal dynamics influence perceptions of face-saving consciousness. Also, the cross-cultural validation of these effects in China and the USA underscores the importance of considering cultural differences.

Overview of wind power forecasting methods

The integration of large-scale wind power into China's power system poses significant challenges to its operational stability. Therefore, accurate wind power output forecasting is crucial for the smooth operation of the grid. This paper begins by analyzing the key factors influencing wind power generation and classifies different forecasting methods. It then summarizes artificial intelligence-based approaches for wind power prediction. Finally, the paper highlights the current state of wind power forecasting in China and discusses potential future research trends in this field

THE DOCTRINE OF LIMITED GOVERNMENT IN THE LEGAL POSITIONS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL COURT OF UKRAINE

Background: The essence of a constitutional system lies in two key aspects: limiting state power and ensuring the supremacy of rights, particularly the protection of human rights and freedoms. Without mechanisms to limit state power, the state inevitably encroaches on society and the private lives of individuals, threatening their rights and freedoms. The evolution of constitutional systems in liberal-democratic countries has been closely tied to strengthening civil society and developing tools for controlling state power. Historically, this evolution has moved from an absolute state, where the state was the sole owner and source of power, to a liberal-democratic state, where the state serves the people and civil society. Alongside this historical shift, there has been a transformation of individuals from being mere cogs in the machinery of state power to becoming citizens of a constitutional state, demanding that the state exercise restraint to safeguard individual freedom. One of the central ideas of constitutionalism is the principle of limited government. This article aims to analyse the legal positions of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine concerning the doctrine of limited government. In particular, it explores how the Court interprets key elements of this doctrine, such as the rule of law, the separation of powers, the rights of individuals and citizens, and the doctrine of constituent power. These and other related issues form the core of the research presented in this article. Methods: The study employed several methods to examine the doctrine of limited government, its elements, and the legal positions related to this issue. The system-structural method was used to characterise the concept and content of the doctrine of limited government and its key elements, including the principle of the rule of law, the principle of separation of powers, the rights of individuals and citizens, and the doctrine of constituent power. The logical-legal method facilitated an understanding of the perspectives of scholars on the formation and development of the doctrine of limited government, as well as their views on the content of its elements. Additionally, legal methods such as examining constitutional texts, primary legislation, and case law were employed to analyse the legal positions of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine. Results and Conclusions: The study examines the historical development and current state of the concept of limited government, exploring its connections with the doctrine of constituent power, the principle of the rule of law, the concept of human rights and freedoms, and the principle of the separation of powers. The primary conclusion is that the legal positions of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine regarding the doctrine of limited government, a key pillar of modern Ukrainian constitutionalism, have been systematically reviewed. It has been established that the Constitutional Court of Ukraine has consistently affirmed the essential elements of the doctrine of limited government from its inception. These elements form the doctrine of constituent power and the fundamental principle of constitutionalism, emphasising the necessity of limiting state power to safeguard human rights and freedoms. Furthermore, the Court upholds the view that the organisation and exercise of state power based on the division into legislative, executive, and judicial branches is not an end in itself but is intended to ensure the protection of individual rights and freedoms.

‘The Hunger Games’: politics and drought in post-colonial Zimbabwe, 1980–1992

This paper explores the politics of drought and hunger in the immediate post-colonial period in Zimbabwe, 1980–1992. This period was characterised by the state's efforts to consolidate power in the context of the African citizenry's anticipated reform of the colonial system and ensuing white supremacist state. The new African-led state's power consolidation efforts manifested in the Gukurahundi massacre between 1982 and 1987, in which drought became a tool to enforce hunger in the Midlands and Matabeleland provinces. There followed a continuation of the politics of patronage and poor administration, which came to characterise the state's drought relief programmes. We explore this political context and deploy a socio-environmental approach to explain the history of drought in the first decade of post-independence Zimbabwe. We begin our analysis in 1980 at the start of political independence, where the political structure of drought response changed, and end in 1992 with the worst drought of the century. Our primary sources are oral history interviews, newspapers, and parliamentary debates. We demonstrate that the post-colonial droughts between 1980 and 1992 were characterised not only by failure at government level but were a conscious manipulation in line with the ruling party's neopatrimonialism stance. Where loyalty could not be bought, it had to be coerced. So the state-forced starvation on drought victims was central to its strong-arm programme of control. Indeed, the failure of the rains could be an excuse when the state needed to claim an alibi for its own failures. In essence, we contend that politics eclipsed policy in fighting drought.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND ITS EFFECT ON ENFORCEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW: THE CASE STUDIES OF UKRAINE AND SYRIA

Background: The aims of international law are to uphold global peace, protect human rights, and hold states accountable if violations of international law occur. However, in practice, its implementation and effectiveness are not uniform due to the dynamics of international relations (IR). In Syria, it has been difficult for the global community to hold the regime accountable for human rights violations, largely due to its powerful allies like Russia. Similarly, the Ukrainian conflict raises serious questions about the efficiency of international law when dealing with Russia’s violations of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine. This study aims to analyse the role of IR in shaping the application of international law in these two conflict zones, with a focus on how external support has enabled the aggressors to persist despite legal challenges. Methods: This research adopts a qualitative research methodology. It relies on desk-based research to collect data by using primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include treaties, UN resolutions, and international legal frameworks. These also include statements from significant actors involved in the Syrian and Ukrainian conflicts, providing insight into the legal frameworks governing international law. Secondary sources include academic articles, reports from international organisations, and expert analyses. This offers context on how international law has been applied or ignored in both cases. Through a comparative analytical approach, the study examines areas of similarity and difference in the implementation of international law in Syria and Ukraine. It highlights shared factors, such as powerful state actor involvement, which includes Russia, and the role of geopolitical interests in hindering effective legal enforcement. It simultaneously points out some differences, such as the international recognition of the Ukrainian government against the fragmented recognition of Syrian opposition groups, and how such differences have shaped responses to both crises. The research emphasises the roles of geopolitical interests and external state actors – Russia, China, and the Western powers – in shaping international responses. The study also examines the themes of sovereignty, humanitarian intervention, and the UN veto power. It highlights how IR impacts the enforcement of international law. Using the case of Ukraine and Syria, the research contributes toward an understanding of the intersection between international law and IR, particularly those challenges emanating from geopolitical interests. Results and Conclusion: The study concludes that international relations significantly shape the enforcement of international law in both Syria and Ukraine, albeit with distinct outcomes. In Syria, the survival of Assad’s regime is due to sustained military, economic, and political support from Russia, China, and Iran. These states have used their influence, particularly in the UN Security Council, to block foreign interventions. This demonstrates how geopolitical interests can paralyse international legal mechanisms. In Ukraine, a more unified international response has resulted in economic sanctions, military support, and legal actions against Russia. However, the geopolitical leverage of Russia, particularly in energy and military strength, has limited the effectiveness of these measures. Russia’s alliance with China further complicates efforts, as China has not clearly condemned or voted against Russia’s war against Ukraine in the UN Security Council. Moreover, China and other Russia’s allies have undermined sanctions by continuing trade and economic relations with Russia, weakening the collective impact of the international Western sanctions. The findings highlight that while international law is influenced by global politics, the degree and type of influence depend on the geopolitical stakes involved, revealing the vulnerability of the system when confronted by powerful states. It calls for reforms to strengthen international legal frameworks, ensuring they are not undermined by the geopolitical interests of key global actors.

CUMPRIMENTO DE SENTENÇA EM LOCAIS DOMINADOS PELO TRÁFICO DE DROGAS

This textual production deals with the inefficiency of the State in enforcing sentences in areas dominated by drug trafficking due to the high degree of dangerousness. For the most part, for reasons of preserving their physical integrity, court officials decline their duties and, any right recognized in a sentence ends up having no effect in practice, not because there was no recognition from the judiciary, but rather because of the lack of State control and mechanisms that enable civil servants to enter the regions and comply with intimidation mandates. In this sense, it is concluded that Brazilian justice is in fact only present in places where state power still has control, residents and rights holders who are in risk areas end up being unaware of the effects of justice.

Symphony of Sex, Power, and the Absurdity of Existence: On the Power Mechanism and State of Existence in "The Golden Age"

Symphony of Sex, Power, and the Absurdity of Existence: On the Power Mechanism and State of Existence in "The Golden Age"

State Power and Political Elites in Dimension of Global Conflicts and Socio-Economic Development of Ukraine

Introduction: The global political conflicts impact the political elite and socioeconomic development of Ukraine. Many big economies face political conflict, particularly between Russia and Ukraine. The current study evaluates the impact of political conflicts on socio and economic factors in Ukraine using data from different official data sources, including World Development Indicators (WDI). Methods: The study uses the Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA). Results: The results indicate that economic growth has decreased since Ukraine and Russia started their conflict. A drastic change in unemployment level and current account also generated negative values. The Ukrainian currency has decreased by more than 20 per cent. The whole concept shows that the indicators are not going in a good direction, which means the quality of life is decreasing due to problems in socio-economic indicators. The human cost of conflict that hurt the economics of the world and Ukraine. The world’s GDP has reduced by 1%, or $1.5 trillion, and European commerce has decreased by 1%. Developing Europe is badly impacted as the GDP of the European nations that rely on Ukraine declines by 30%. The exports have decreased from 8 to 18 per cent, contributing to the current account deficit. Conclusions: On the other hand, the study concludes that global political conflicts impact leaders regarding international political disputes, which also affect socioeconomic and political elements, security, and politics. Certain sub-factors, such as heightened accountability and scrutiny, shifting alliances, and the power of international institutions, are impacted politically.

The Internationalization of Deterrence: The Case Study of Iran's Biaxial Deterrence in the Middle East

ABSTRACTThe concept of deterrence is central to both international relations and strategic studies, as it endeavors to establish peace through the “threat to reciprocal retaliation.” The Cold War era as the golden age of nuclear deterrence revealed that even the most powerful states are enthusiastic to transfer part of their strategic and military capabilities, such as nuclear weapons, to other states to countering potential threats. By presenting the concept of “internationalization of deterrence,” this article addresses the implementation of Iran's biaxial deterrence in the Middle East. Internationalizing deterrence entails the transfer of military and security capabilities from a deterrent power to allied and cooperative nations, thereby enhancing both the effectiveness and credibility of deterrence measures. The internationalization of deterrence encompasses a variety of strategies, including nuclear sharing, the creation of military bases in foreign countries, the backing of allied groups, and the overseas deployment of missiles. Biaxial deterrence is also an element of Iran's internationalized deterrence strategy, focusing on two interconnected dimensions: aligned groups—protégés—and advancing of their conventional weapons capabilities in the Middle East. Through internationalization of its conventional deterrence, Iran has sought to enhance its deterrent capabilities and credibility while minimizing costs and maximizing effectiveness.

Microseism Amplitude and Wave Power in the Mediterranean Sea (1996–2023)

AbstractIn this work, we integrate seismic data recorded by nine coastal Mediterranean seismic stations and wave hindcast data for 1 January 1996 through 15 October 2023. We examine the relationships between the ocean wave‐generated microseism signal (the most continuous and ubiquitous seismic signal on Earth) in terms of temporally varying spectral content, root mean square amplitude, and microseism power spectral density, with the main features of principal ocean wave attributes, specifically significant wave heights, wave period and wave power. To explore relationships between microseism and sea state, we performed a correlation analysis between seismic root square mean amplitude and significant wave height time series for the entire Mediterranean Sea for 1996–2023, including retrieving long‐term trends for microseism energy and independently estimated wave power and calculating the Spearman correlation coefficient between the two trend time series. Despite the small number of stations available the analysis allows for a useful exploratory study on the microseism and its relationship with Mediterranean Sea state and wave power spanning 27 years. Given the recent increase in the number of regional seismic stations, the growth of data sharing, and the intensification of global warming and climate extreme events, the results and methods explored here can be further implemented and developed in coming years for coastal monitoring purposes in complement with other data sources.

The Buddist Temple and The State Power in Japanese History : From the Prosperity of the Dynastic Temple to Its Extinction

The Buddist Temple and The State Power in Japanese History : From the Prosperity of the Dynastic Temple to Its Extinction

Public Policy in Legalist Thought and Its Application and Impact in Contemporary China

The Legalism is one of the most influential and representative political philosophies of ancient China, and it has continued to have an enduring influence on public policy making and the governance model of contemporary China. This article will explore the sustained influence of Legalism on governance in contemporary China by exploring the core principles of Legalism as well as its main ideas on public policy and governance. The main core principles and ideas of Legalism are: the rule of law, strict adherence to the law, and the strategic use of state power. This study aims to highlight the continuity of ancient philosophical thought in shaping the current political landscape, while also demonstrating and emphasising the importance of understanding these historical origins in order to understand Chinese governance patterns.

Research on Civil Servant Incentive Mechanism

Civil servants are the largest group to participate in the exercise of state power. With the advent of globalization, the importance of civil servants to the country is becoming more and more obvious. Whether civil servants have profound cognitive power, strong execution power and United spirit is related to the administrative efficiency of the government. Therefore, it is very important to study the incentive mechanism of civil servants. In recent years, the incentive mechanism of civil servants in China has gradually moved towards a scientific and institutionalized track. The motivation of civil servants should adhere to the organic unity of material motivation and spiritual motivation, and at the same time pay attention to the principle of unifying the merit system, incentive standards and incentive effects of grassroots civil servants. However, in reality, there are still some problems in the civil service system, such as the design of salary system is not strong, the design of promotion system is insufficient for grassroots civil servants, the design of training system can not effectively promote the career development of grassroots civil servants, and there is a lack of perfect fault-tolerant and error-correcting mechanism for civil servants. Incentive is conducive to civil servants to give full play to their potential, show their talents and perform their duties. Therefore, it is very important to achieve effective incentives for civil servants.

Racing whiteness in Asian bodies: The influence of American conservatism on Singaporean anti‐colonial nationalism

AbstractIn contemporary Singaporean sociopolitical discourse, comparisons with the West—particularly the USA and the UK—have become pervasive across a wide range of critical social issues. These comparisons often serve to reinforce the political positions of the Singaporean state by contrasting them with perceived shortcomings in the Western world. Utilizing a linguistic anthropological framework, this paper explores the phenomenon of anti‐colonial nationalism, wherein state representatives dismiss challenges to the Singaporean status quo as unpatriotic, Western‐influenced, and thus dangerously “white.” By demonstrating how Singapore's anti‐colonial politics is paradoxically shaped by the anti‐liberal and populist rhetoric of the contemporary American right, this paper argues that anti‐colonialism is a product of twenty‐first‐century neoliberal nationalism. Underscoring the importance of examining how political rhetoric crosses international borders, this study seeks to invite a conversation on the dynamics of nationalist discourses in the twenty‐first century, and how the language of decolonization can be co‐opted by new forms of state power and control through a racing of “whiteness.”

George Pachymeres’ Walking as a Problem

Introduction. In George Pachymeres’ historical work, “walking” turns out to be synonymous with a certain political situation. Certainly, the conflict between Michael VIII and Patriarch Arsenius is a peculiar nerve of the Byzantine historian’s historical narrative, and the Arsenite controversy is a significant problem for the Byzantine state, society, and church. In this sense, the “insignificant” “walk” seems to be a fairly accurate metaphor for the emerging political conflict, expressing certain power relations. Such a walk is nothing less than “the will to power in a discursive state.” In other words, Pachymeres’ walking man resolves issues of power by his very movement. Methods and materials. Walking as an act of everyday life has been scrutinized in contemporary cultural studies literature. From a structuralist perspective, to walk is to “speak.” Walk, in this sense, is a whole implicit sign system, with its own signs, structure, rhythm, and context. Walking turns out to be an important social gesture. In this sense, the tired but still walking patriarch of Nicaea, Arsenius the Autorianus (c. 1200–1273), should be properly understood. Analysis. This “walking” is an exceptionally vivid gesture (especially vivid in that the patriarch, not a young man at all, does not stop in his persistence even at night). Before us is not just a personal offense of Arsenius, a man who was deceived and betrayed. It is worth noting that Arsenius himself was regent under John Lascaris, and his inert patriarchal administration, actively issuing documents confirming the privileges of the monasteries, was the only legitimate authority. Such a movement of Arsenius was not so much a protest against the removal of the minor John Laskaris and usurpation of power by Michael VIII but also a defense of his authority. Results. The walking patriarch in George Pachymeres is certainly a very personal moment in the narrative. In fact, an ancient hero appears before us, challenging Fate (and Michael VIII Palaeologus, according to Pachymeres, is simply the evil Rock of the Empire) without hope of victory, where the very tragedy of the situation only emphasizes its heroism and exclusivity.

Юбилей Соловьевского семинара: 25 лет служения русской философии

The article presents the characteristics of the activity of the Interregional Scientific and Educational Center for Research V.S. Solovyov’s legacy (Solovyov Seminar), established at the Ivanovo State Power University in November 1999. The systematic nature of the center's work aimed at integrating science and education being the most important task of implementing the national project “Science and Universities” is noted. The activities of the center in the scientific, educational, pedagogic spheres of university life, the most important scientific and cultural projects of the Solovyov seminar, and the participation of Russian and foreign scientists in them are characterized. Information is provided about the publications of the center, including the “Solovyov Studies” journal. Special attention is paid to the analysis of student projects of the Solovyov seminar – student scientific conferences and cultural events that contribute to the formation of high professional, civic and moral qualities of a person. Information on the cooperation of the Solovyov seminar with Russian and foreign scientific centers is provided.

Limitations of Human Rights in the Conditions of War and Peace: The Constitutional Aspect

The article conducts a doctrinal analysis of the constitutional criteria for restrictions on human rights. The author asks whether the content and scope of these restrictions differ during the martial law period and during peacetime. It also questions whether the constitution allows the state to exceed its constitutional limits during an armed response to the aggressor. It is argued that the introduction of more severe limitations on human rights during martial law must be balanced with the constitutional requirement for the state to act in accordance with the constitution. Otherwise, disproportionate restrictions that nullify the core of constitutional rights could lead to state power exceeding the limits established by the constitution. The main criterion, or basis, for the doctrine of limiting state power by the constitution is the fundamental constitutional rights and freedoms. As the jurisprudence of constitutional courts shows, the core of constitutional rights that are not absolute (absolute rights are very few in modern constitutional systems—the right to dignity, the prohibition of torture, and the right to life) cannot be subject to any limitations, similar to absolute rights. A very important criterion, derived from the constitutions and practices of constitutional jurisdiction bodies of modern states, is that the state, when imposing limitations, cannot violate the essence of a constitutional right, i.e., its core, which is not subject to any legislative limitations for the purpose of constitutional protection of individual freedom and autonomy. It is asserted that the narrowing of the content and scope of existing constitutional human rights and freedoms constitutes their limitation, and limitations are permitted by the Constitution. It is concluded that the rights and freedoms listed in part two of Article 64 of the Constitution of Ukraine, and not subject to limitations, should be limited according to peacetime criteria, meaning they are not subject to extraordinary restrictions during wartime. As for other constitutional rights and freedoms not included in the list in Article 64 of the Constitution of Ukraine, stricter restrictions may be applied by the state if they pursue a legitimate goal and are justified by the need to achieve victory over the enemy.

Venetian Control of Information Flows with Constantinople and the Soft Power of a Renaissance State

Abstract The ability to control international flows of information constitutes one of the core elements of the soft power of any modern state aspiring to exercise some level of regional or global hegemony. This phenomenon has been previously examined by those who study long-distance communications mainly in the context of the nineteenth-century telegraph or the twentieth-century broadcast. However, inquiries focusing on the analogous historical role performed by the postal service during the early modern era are much more scarce. Building upon this premise, this study examines the strategic advantages gained by the Republic of Venice through its control of the mail exchange between Europe and the Middle East – a de facto postal monopoly established during the sixteenth century. Venice deliberately subsidized this service in order to prevent the rise of potential competition. Despite the substantial cost, this was seen as an effective investment through which the republic gained a set of tangible strategic advantages. In particular, it helped to extend Venice’s relevance on the European political scene long past the point when its traditional political, economic, and naval–military power was already fading away.

MAPPING ISLAM: New Order Policy, Mosque Distribution, and Religious Dynamics in West Java, Indonesia

One of the key factors shaping the religious landscape in Indonesia is the strategic policies implemented by the New Order Government. This article examines how these policies influenced the geographic distribution of mosques and the subsequent religious dynamics in West Java. Additionally, it investigates the impact of government policies on the formation and development of religious organizations and Islamic communities across different regions, with a specific focus on West Java. This study employs a historical method by analyzing government archives, historical documents, and mosque establishment data. Spatial analysis is used to correlate mosque locations with centers of social, economic, and political activity. The findings indicate that the New Order government's mosque construction policy directly shaped the spatial distribution of mosques in West Java. The placement of mosques during the New Order era prioritized areas with concentrated Muslim population, aligning with the government's strategy to monitor religious organizations. By strategically placing mosques, which often serve as the center of life for Muslim communities, the New Order aimed to control Muslim activities. This article contributes to a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between state power, religion, and spatial politics in Indonesia.

Predictors of terrorist use of suicide attacks: group age and state power

ABSTRACT This study investigates the question of why terrorist groups differ in how frequently they conduct suicide attacks. The study provides a novel explanation for the tactical choices of terrorist groups, demonstrating the key roles of group age, initial adoption of suicide attacks, and state military strength. The effect of these factors is tested through a quantitative analysis of a dataset assembled from multiple publicly-available datasets. The constructed dataset includes 140 terrorist groups active between 1998 and 2012. The analysis finds that as groups increase in age, they conduct fewer suicide attacks, as they are more likely to possess skilled operatives and have the capacity to carry out complex operations. The results also show that groups that adopted suicide terror as a tactic later in their existence carry out fewer suicide attacks, due to organizations relying on established practices and procedures. In addition, as state troop levels increase, the frequency of suicide attacks rises, likely as a response to increased security pressure and target hardening. The implications of these findings for counter-terrorism policy include the need for heightened security measures against suicide attacks by emerging groups and preparing for potential increases in suicide attacks as state military pressure intensifies.