Poultry Transport Research Articles

Outcomes of Microbiological Challenges in Poultry Transport: A Mini Review of the Reasons for Effective Bacterial Control

This review aims to highlight the main microbiological challenges faced in poultry transport and show the role of effective bacterial control during this process to ensure poultry health and meat safety and to reduce economic losses. Poultry infections are among the most frequent infections in production systems, manifesting themselves in hatcheries, farms, slaughterhouses, and during transport between these integration centers. Although the clinical symptoms of these infections can range from mild to severe, many of them can lead to irreversible conditions, resulting in death and compromising productive results. Bacteria are the main causative agents of these infections, although fungi, viruses, and protozoa may also be involved. During the transport of poultry from farms to slaughterhouses, poultry are very vulnerable to infectious conditions. Therefore, implementing effective antibacterial management, focused on professionals, transport crates, and transport vehicles, is essential to guarantee the survival and quality of poultry until the moment of slaughter.

The Poultry Red Mite, Dermanyssus gallinae, travels far but not frequently, and takes up permanent residence on farms

Management of Dermanyssus gallinae, a cosmopolitan hematophagous mite responsible for damage in layer poultry farming, is hampered by a lack of knowledge of its spatio-temporal population dynamics. Previous studies have shown that the circulation of this pest between farms is of strictly anthropogenic origin, that a mitochondrial haplogroup has been expanding on European farms since the beginning of the 21st century and that its local population growth may be particularly rapid. To refine our understanding of how D. gallinae spreads within and among farms, we characterized the genetic structure of mite populations at different spatial scales and sought to identify the main factors interrupting gene flow between poultry houses and between mitochondrial haplogroups. To this end, we selected and validated the first set of nuclear microsatellite markers for D. gallinae and sequenced a region of the CO1-encoding mitochondrial gene in a subsample of microsatellite-genotyped mites. We also tested certain conditions required for effective contamination of a poultry house through field experimentation, and conducted a survey of practices during poultry transfers. Our results confirm the role of poultry transport in the dissemination of mite populations, but the frequency of effective contamination after the introduction of contaminated material into poultry houses seems lower than expected. The high persistence of mites on farms, even during periods when poultry houses are empty and cleaned, and the very large number of nodes in the logistic network (large number of companies supplying pullets or transporting animals) undoubtedly explain the very high prevalence on farms. Substantial genetic diversity was measured in farm populations, probably as a result of the mite's known haplodiploid mode of sexual reproduction, coupled with the dense logistic network. The possibility of the occasional occurrence of asexual reproduction in this sexually reproducing mite was also revealed in our analyses, which could explain the extreme aggressiveness of its demographic dynamics under certain conditions.

Determinants for the presence of avian influenza virus in live bird markets in Bangladesh: Towards an easy fix of a looming one health issue

Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus subtype H5N1 endangers poultry, wildlife, and human health and is enzootic in large parts of Asia, with live bird markets (LBMs) as putative hotspots for their maintenance, amplification, and spread. To mitigate the extent of these and other avian influenza viruses (AIV) of concern, we aimed to increase our quantitative understanding of the factors determining the presence of avian influenza virus in LBM stalls. Between 2016 and 2017, we collected fecal or offal samples from 1008 stalls in 113 LBMs across the Dhaka and Rajshahi districts in Bangladesh. For each stall, samples were pooled and tested for the AIV matrix gene, followed by H5 and H9 subtyping using rRT-PCR. We detected Influenza A viral RNA in 49% of the stalls. Of the AIV positive samples, 52% and 24% were determined to be H5 and H9 viruses, respectively, which are both subtypes of considerable health concern. We used generalized linear mixed effect modelling to study AIV presence in individual stalls within LBMs as a function of 13 out of the 20 risk factors identified by FAO. We found that small and feasible improvements in cleaning and disinfection frequency, installing running water in stalls, and not mixing different breeds of chicken in the same cages had large impacts on the presence of AIV in stalls (Odds ratios 0.03–0.05). Next, cleaning vehicles used in poultry transport, not selling waterfowl with chickens in the same stall, buying stock directly from commercial farms, separating sick birds from healthy ones, and avoiding access by wild birds like house crows, also had major effects on lowering the risk of stalls having AIV (Odds ratios 0.16–0.33). These findings can be directly used in developing practical and affordable measures to reduce the prevalence of AIV in LBMs. Also, in settings with limited resources like Bangladesh, such mitigation may significantly contribute to reducing AIV circulation amongst poultry and spillover to wildlife and humans.

Comprehensive analysis of biosecurity practices and antimicrobial use in broiler chicken production by integrated operations in Korea

Integrated broiler operations that allow producers to combine various biosecurity and sanitation practices account for approximately 97.6% of chicken meat production in Korea, but it is not well known about the biosecurity level or compliance with regulations for each operation. Therefore, the objective this study was to analyze the current adoption of biosecurity practices and trends in antimicrobial use in 74 farms from 5 major integrated broiler chicken operations (A-E). The highest stock densities of more than 65 birds per 3.3 m2 (0.5 birds/ft2) showed in 66.7 and 33.3% of the farms in operations A and C, respectively. Also, the livability rate of 98% or less was observed in 73.3 and 93.4% of the farms, in operation A and C, respectively, which lower than other operations. Moreover, it was observed that 60.0 and 40.0% of farms in operations B and C reused litter 3 or more times. Among the 74 farms, the most common antimicrobials prescription frequency was 2 times (39.2%), and the prescription to β-lactams antibiotics (45.3%) showed the significantly highest (P < 0.05). The highest administration of antimicrobials was at 15 to 22-days old (42.7%), and most of them were recommended by veterinarian (80.7%). Footbath disinfectant and spraying outside the poultry house were performed in most of the farms (64.9 and 83.8%, respectively), but the use of quicklime (36.5%) and drinking water disinfectant (18.9%) was low in farms. Most of the farms washed vehicles for transportation of poultry (87.8%) and feed (100%) before arriving at the farms, however, 40.5% of the farms used little or no disinfectants when washing the transport vehicles. Moreover, wild birds, and cats and dogs were well controlled on most of the farms (each 94.6%), but only 74.3% of farms offered rodent control programs. Also, only 27.0% of the farms used farm-specific shoes and clothing as well as footbath disinfection for entrance. These findings can be useful in developing policies and guidelines for sustainable and responsible broiler chicken production and reduction of antimicrobial use in Korea.

Comparison of transport crates contamination with Campylobacter spp. before and after the cleaning and disinfection procedure in broiler slaughterhouses

Campylobacteriosis is one of the most common types of bacterial gastroenteritis affecting humans, and poultry is considered a major source of the causative organism, Campylobacter spp. Broilers may arrive contaminated at slaughterhouses, and transport crates could be considered a potential source of contamination. Thus, cleaning and disinfection procedures are crucial to avoid cross-contamination among flocks. Despite its public health importance in Latin American countries, virulence factors of Campylobacter jejuni remain poorly studied in this region. Thus, this study aimed to: 1) determine the occurrence of contaminated crates at a poultry slaughterhouse, 2) compare the contamination before and after the cleaning and disinfection procedures, and 3) detect virulence-associated genes in C. jejuni strains by PCR. Campylobacter spp. were recovered from 8 of the 10 flocks evaluated, and C. jejuni was detected as the main species. There was no significant difference in the Campylobacter detection or quantification between crates at the reception platform and crates after the cleaning/disinfection processes. However, crates after 24 h of natural drying, presented a significant (P < 0.05) lower amount of Campylobacter cells than before the cleaning and disinfection processes. A negative relationship (R2 = 0.210, P = 0.045) between environmental conditions and Campylobacter quantification was found for transport crates after 24 h of natural drying. There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in the detection of two C. jejuni virulence genes, flaA (encode a major flagellin protein) and cadF (encode an adhesion and fibronectin-binding protein), among various stages of the cleaning and disinfection processes. Our results demonstrate the high contamination levels of Campylobacter strains in broiler flocks and the potential involvement of poultry transport crates in transmitting these bacteria. This study also suggests that ineffective cleaning and disinfection procedures can increase Campylobacter contamination and facilitate the spread of bacteria in poultry establishments.

Stres pengangkutan pada ternak unggas, pengaruh dan upaya penanggulangan

The transportation of poultry from the farmer to the chicken slaughterhouse (CSH) or to the chicken slaughterplace (CSP) is a chain that plays a significant role in determining the quality of poultry meat. During the transportation, the birds experienced stress from the process of moving from cages to boxes, overcrowding of chickens in boxes, unavailability of feed and drinking water, stress of heat and wind, the process of moving chickens from boxes to temporary shelters, as well as fatigue and fear. All of these processes act simultaneously as stressors, so that chickens suffer from acute stress. Stress in livestock has an impact on the emergence of glycolytic processes, glycolysis and ATP hydrolysis. Muscle glycogen will undergo enzymatic glycolysis and produce lactic acid which triggers changes in the pH of the meat so that the meat becomes pale, soft and watery (PSE = pale, soft, exudative). The most detrimental impact is the emergence of a high mortality rate, so this transportation process must be handled carefully. Some things can be done to reduce the stress of transportation include: chickens that are transported in good health, before transportation, supplymenting antistress is offered, prior to leaving the chickens are sprayed with water. Catching the birds is avoided, and put them in the box and then remove from the box gently. Filling boxes must be in accordance with standards, and transportation is carried out at night.

Genetic diversity and population genetic structure of Cambodian indigenous chickens.

ObjectiveCambodia is located within the distribution range of the red junglefowl, the common ancestor of domestic chickens. Although a variety of indigenous chickens have been reared in Cambodia since ancient times, their genetic characteristics have yet to be sufficiently defined. Here, we conducted a large-scale population genetic study to investigate the genetic diversity and population genetic structure of Cambodian indigenous chickens and their phylogenetic relationships with other chicken breeds and native chickens worldwide.MethodsA Bayesian phylogenetic tree was constructed based on 625 mitochondrial DNA D-loop sequences, and Bayesian clustering analysis was performed for 666 individuals with 23 microsatellite markers, using samples collected from 28 indigenous chicken populations in 24 provinces and three commercial chicken breeds.ResultsA total of 92 haplotypes of mitochondrial D-loop sequences belonging to haplogroups A to F and J were detected in Cambodian chickens; in the indigenous chickens, haplogroup D (44.4%) was the most common, and haplogroups A (21.0%) and B (13.2%) were also dominant. However, haplogroup J, which is rare in domestic chickens but abundant in Thai red junglefowl, was found at a high frequency (14.5%), whereas the frequency of haplogroup E was considerably lower (4.6%). Population genetic structure analysis based on microsatellite markers revealed the presence of three major genetic clusters in Cambodian indigenous chickens. Their genetic diversity was relatively high, which was similar to findings reported for indigenous chickens from other Southeast Asian countries.ConclusionCambodian indigenous chickens are characterized by mitochondrial D-loop haplotypes that are common to indigenous chickens throughout Southeast Asia, and may retain many of the haplotypes that originated from wild ancestral populations. These chickens exhibit high population genetic diversity, and the geographical distribution of three major clusters may be attributed to inter-regional trade and poultry transportation routes within Cambodia or international movement between Cambodia and other countries.

The use of cloud technology for sustainable performance of international supply chains: A case study

In this article a case study is carried out to investigate the role of an IT platform connecting companies in the supply chain. The significance of IT platforms is that they facilitate information, communication and new technologies and allow companies to increase efficiency and optimise their supply chain processes. The renewed version of supply chain finance conceptual model by Jansen (2018) was used to study and to analyse the case of the Heering-Holland company as an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) offering transport solutions for conditioned poultry transport. Heering-Holland uses the TradeCloud platform for its supply chain to connect with suppliers and customers. The authors evaluated the impact of the use of this platform on company sustainable performance in general and its financial benefits on basis of supply chain finance metrics such as improvement of liquidity, decrease in Days Inventory Outstanding (DIO), increase in Return on Equity (ROE) and multiple value creation.

Wyniki kontroli transportów drobiu na terenie województwa podkarpackiego

The purpose of the study was to assess the correctness of the implementation of poultry transports and the violations found during the inspections carried out by the Regional Road Transport Inspectorate of Rzeszow, from 2016 to 2020. The highest number of poultry transport inspections was carried out in 2018 and 2019, while the highest average number of individuals was found during the inspection in January 2017. The study noted a significant trend indicating a reduction in the number of cases of poultry transport irregularities in consecutive years.

Effect of Transport Crate Position on Welfare of Laying Hens and Oxidative stress

This study was carried out to investigate the effects of crating position of laying hens during transport on live weight loss, mortality rate, plasma biochemical, and oxidative stress parameters under commercial transport conditions in Afyonkarahisar. A commercial multi-decked and fixed-crate-type poultry transport trailer was used for bird transportation. The hens were transported in 9 selected loading positions on the trailer's front, center, rear sections, and top, middle, and bottom rows. Both pre-transport and post-transport hens were weighed individually, and blood samples were taken. Live weight loss, mortality rate, glucose, MDA, AOA, and cortisol concentrations increased, triglyceride and cholesterol concentrations decreased in the hens transported between farm and slaughterhouse. The hens loaded in the bottom row and rear section were most adversely affected by transportation and, the welfare loss of these hens was dramatic. It has been observed that the microclimate conditions of the transport crates in the bottom row are more unfavorable than those in the other positions. The results showed that transport crates positioned in the bottom row and rear section of the trailer were more stressful for laying hens. In conclusion, the potential stress profile of the position of the animal crates during transport can contribute to the strategic solutions to be developed to reduce the welfare losses of laying hens.

ФАКТОР ВРЕМЕНИ В СИТУАЦИОННОМ УПРАВЛЕНИИ АВТОМОБИЛЬНЫМИ ПЕРЕВОЗКАМИ ЖИВОЙ ПТИЦЫ

The urgency of the problem of reducing delays in the execution of technological operations for the transportation of live poultry by road has been substantiated. The proposed methodology is based on a situational approach to organizing the interaction of the staff of the poultry complex, aimed at promptly adjusting the modes of their work, in order to reduce delays in loading, moving and unloading the poultry vehicle, and the time spent by the bird in its body. The methodology includes five stages associated with the formation of an electronic daily request for transportation and its coordination with the participants of the transportation process, with an automatic calculation of the parameters of resource provision of transportation, with on-line monitoring of delays at its various stages, as well as with the development of management of operational measures to reduce the arising delays. Management decisions to reduce the resulting delays are typified. The economic effect is calculated and the expediency of practical implementation of the proposed recommendations is substantiated.

The effects of simulated transportation conditions on the core body and extremity temperature, blood physiology, and behavior of white-strain layer pullets

Transportation of poultry is stressful. The transportation of broilers has been well studied, while the transportation of layer pullets from rearing to laying facilities has not been thoroughly evaluated. This experiment aimed to establish the effects of temperature (T)/RH combinations and duration (D) of transport, via a 5 × 2 factorial arrangement of simulated transport conditions using 5 T/RH combinations (21°C with 30% RH [21/30], 21°C with 80% RH [21/80], 30°C with 30% RH [30/30], 30°C with 80% RH [30/80], and −15°C with uncontrolled RH [−15]), and 2 exposure D (4 or 8 h). Pullets (18–19 wk; n = 240) were obtained from 3 commercial farms (N = 3 farms). Pretreatment, birds were orally administered a miniature data logger to record core body temperature (CBT), an initial blood sample was taken (5 birds/replicate), and initial foot T was recorded. Behavior during exposure was video recorded. Following exposure, a final blood sample was taken (analyzed for heterophil to lymphocyte ratio, partial pressure of CO2, total CO2, bicarbonate, and glucose), birds were slaughtered, and data loggers were retrieved. Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design via Proc Mixed (SAS 9.4) and significance was declared at P ≤ 0.05. There were no interactions observed for the T/RH and D combinations throughout the study. The CBT and foot T were lowest in pullets exposed to −15 compared with all other treatments. Foot T was also highest in pullets exposed to 30/80 compared with −15, 21/30, and 21/80. There was no impact of T/RH on pullet blood physiology. Activity and thermoregulatory behaviors were impacted by the T/RH combinations. Pullets exposed to 30/30 and 30/80 spent the most time panting. Pullets exposed to 30/80 also spent the least amount of time motionless. Duration had minor impacts on pullet CBT, blood physiology, and behavior. These data indicate that as a response to thermal stress, layer pullets were successful at implementing mechanisms to maintain homeostasis.

A decision support framework for prediction of avian influenza

For years, avian influenza has influenced economies and human health around the world. The emergence and spread of avian influenza virus have been uncertain and sudden. The virus is likely to spread through several pathways such as poultry transportation and wild bird migration. The complicated and global spread of avian influenza calls for surveillance tools for timely and reliable prediction of disease events. These tools can increase situational awareness and lead to faster reaction to events. Here, we aimed to design and evaluate a decision support framework that aids decision makers by answering their questions regarding the future risk of events at various geographical scales. Risk patterns were driven from pre-built components and combined in a knowledge base. Subsequently, questions were answered by direct queries on the knowledge base or through a built-in algorithm. The evaluation of the system in detecting events resulted in average sensitivity and specificity of 69.70% and 85.50%, respectively. The presented framework here can support health care authorities by providing them with an opportunity for early control of emergency situations.

Simulated transport of well- and poor-feathered brown-strain end-of-cycle hens and the impact on stress physiology, behavior, and meat quality

Transportation of poultry is stressful, especially for end-of-cycle hens (EOCH) experiencing metabolic stress. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of simulated transport on well- and poor-feathered brown-strain EOCH. The study (5 × 3 × 2 factorial arrangement) consisted of 5 temperature and relative humidity (RH) combinations applied directly at crate level (−10°C uncontrolled RH [−10], +21°C 30%RH [21/30], +21°C 80%RH [21/80], +30°C 30%RH [30/30], or +30°C 80%RH [30/80]), 3 durations (4, 8, or 12 h), and 2 feather covers (well [WF] or poor [PF]). Hens (n = 540) from 3 commercial farms were housed for a 3- to 5-d adaptation period, then feed was withdrawn before treatment exposure (crate density 54.5 kg/m2). Data collected included chamber conditions, feather condition score, behavior, blood physiology, core body temperature, mortality, and meat quality. Data were analyzed (randomized complete block design) using ANOVA; significance declared at P ≤ 0.05. Time spent performing thermoregulatory behaviors increased for hot (30/30 and 30/80) and cold (−10) treatments. Mortality only occurred in hens exposed to −10 and increased with longer duration. Cold exposure impacted meat quality, resulting in higher thigh pH and lower L∗ (lightness) and b∗ (yellowness). Prolonged exposure duration resulted in dehydration, indicated by blood physiology (hematocrit and hemoglobin) and live shrink. PF hens struggled with thermoregulation in −10, while WF hens struggled in 30/30 and 30/80. These results demonstrate that EOCH exposed at crate level to hot (+30) conditions experience thermal stress, while hens exposed to cold (−10) are unable to cope, compromising welfare and meat quality.

Modeling analysis revealed the distinct global transmission patterns of influenza A viruses and their influencing factors.

Influenza A virus has caused huge damage to human health and poultry production worldwide, but its global transmission patterns and influencing factors remain unclear. Here, by using the Nearest Genetic Distance Approach with genetic sequences data, we reconstructed the global transmission patterns of 4 most common subtypes of influenza A virus (H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, and H7N9) and analyzed associations of transmission velocity of these influenza viruses with environmental factors. We found that the transmission patterns of influenza viruses and their associations with environmental factors were closely related to their host properties. H1N1 and H3N2, which are mainly held by humans, are transmitted between regions at high velocity and over long distances, which may be due to human transportation via airplane; while H5N1 and H7N9, which are mainly carried by animals, are transmitted locally at short distances and at low velocity, which may be facilitated by poultry transportation via railways or high ways. H1N1 and H3N2 spread faster in cold seasons, while H5N1 spread faster in both cold and warm seasons, and H7N9 spread faster in wet seasons. H1N1, H3N2, and H5N1 spread faster in places with both high and low human densities. Our study provided novel insights into the global transmission patterns, processes, and management strategies for influenza under accelerated global change.

Assessing the role of live poultry trade in community-structured transmission of avian influenza in China

The live poultry trade is thought to play an important role in the spread and maintenance of highly pathogenic avian influenza A viruses (HP AIVs) in Asia. Despite an abundance of small-scale observational studies, the role of the poultry trade in disseminating AIV over large geographic areas is still unclear, especially for developing countries with complex poultry production systems. Here we combine virus genomes and reconstructed poultry transportation data to measure and compare the spatial spread in China of three key subtypes of AIV: H5N1, H7N9, and H5N6. Although it is difficult to disentangle the contribution of confounding factors, such as bird migration and spatial distance, we find evidence that the dissemination of these subtypes among domestic poultry is geographically continuous and likely associated with the intensity of the live poultry trade in China. Using two independent data sources and network analysis methods, we report a regional-scale community structure in China that might explain the spread of AIV subtypes in the country. The identification of this structure has the potential to inform more targeted strategies for the prevention and control of AIV in China.

An improved cleaning system to reduce microbial contamination of poultry transport crates in the United Kingdom.

Following previous research on improving the cleaning of crates used to transport broiler chickens from the farm to the abattoir, a demonstration project was undertaken to investigate improvements in crate washing on a commercial scale. The soak tank of a conventional crate washing system was replaced with a high-performance washer fitted with high-volume, high-pressure nozzles. The wash water could be heated, and a greatly improved filtration system ensured that the nozzles did not lose performance or become blocked. Visual cleanliness scores and microbial counts were determined for naturally contaminated crates which had been randomly assigned to different cleaning protocols. When a combination of mechanical energy, heat and chemicals (i.e. detergent and disinfectant) was used, the results showed significant improvements to crate cleaning. Reductions of up to 3·6 and 3·8 log10 CFU per crate base were achieved for Campylobacter and Enterobacteriaceae, respectively, along with a marked improvement in visual cleanliness. Broiler transport crates may become heavily contaminated with faeces and this may contribute to the spread of disease between farms. The results of this trial may be of use in reducing the spread of zoonotic pathogens in the poultry meat supply chain.

Computational Fluid Dynamics Model of Air Velocity through a Poultry Transport Trailer in a Holding Shed

HighlightsComputational fluid dynamics modeling was an effective tool to simulate conditions on transport trailers in holding broilers for slaughter, to understand the performance of existing and alternative system configurations;Model simulation and measurements indicated that less than 32% of airflow generated by the cooling fans in the existing fan configuration in this study actually penetrated through the bird-occupied spaces;Simulations suggest that higher air velocity in the bird occupied zone within the modules can be achieved by alternative fan configurations at the holding shed, such as employing one fan per module, or with the addition of a transition enclosures from each fan outlet to the face of the receiving module. Abstract. The configuration of cooling systems in commercial holding sheds, where live broilers wait in cage modules for slaughter, varies between processing plants, with cooling system efficacies largely unknown. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was developed to simulate airflow through cage modules in a poultry trailer in a typical holding shed configuration. Three alternative design configurations were simulated in order to better understand the air velocity profiles and to explore potential improvements for better cooling performance. Experimental data were collected within modules in a poultry trailer, parked in an existing commercial holding shed during warm summer conditions. Results from the CFD model had reasonable agreement with measured field data. Simulated air velocities were mostly within one standard deviation of measured values. Simulation of airflow through modules in the base configuration showed that less than 32% of airflow from the fans actually penetrated through the bird-occupied space. Module tiers experienced different airflow penetration due to the ad hoc positioning/alignment of the fans relative to the modules. In the base industry configuration, fans were in fixed positions and the number of fans and their centerline discharge axes did not align with the modules on the trailer. Regions not aligned with the faces of the fans, such as the uppermost and bottommost tiers, and horizontal locations offset from the fans, received the least airflow through the modules. Sections of modules experienced lower air velocity with increasing distance from the fans. Simulation of Design Alternative 2 (which added additional fans so that a fan was centered on each row) predicted an improved fan airflow of 3.08 and 3.05 kg s-1 through the cages in two adjacent rows, compared to 1.52 and 2.15 kg s-1 predicted for the original configuration. The increased air velocity using the alternative design illustrates the potential improvement and need to further optimize the design of these holding sheds. This research showed that a CFD model is an effective tool to simulate airflow conditions on poultry trailers in holding sheds to explore various holding shed cooling configurations and strategies. Keywords: Air velocity, CFD, Poultry Transportation, Poultry welfare.

Application of slightly acidic electrolyzed water and ultraviolet light for Salmonella enteritidis decontamination of cell suspensions and surfaces of artificially inoculated plastic poultry transport coops and other facility surfaces

The efficiency of combination treatment of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) and ultraviolet light (UV) for inactivation of Salmonella enteritidis (S. enteritidis) on the surface of plastic poultry coops and other facility surfaces was evaluated in the presence of organic matter. The bactericidal activities of SAEW, UV + SAEW, and composite phenol (CP) for inactivating S. enteritidis were also compared. Moreover, a model of UV + SAEW treatment of plastic transport coops with different times and available chlorine concentrations (ACC) was developed using multiple linear regression analysis. There are differences between SAEW and CP inactivation of S. enteritidis on coops, stainless steel, and glass surfaces (P < 0.05), and there are no differences between SAEW and CP on tire surfaces (P > 0.05). Disinfection of some rough material surfaces with SAEW treatment alone under feces interference on poultry farms may need a longer treatment time and/or a higher ACC than smooth surfaces. The combined treatment of UV and SAEW showed higher inactivation efficiency of S. enteritidis compared to CP and SAEW treatment alone (P < 0.05) in pure cultures or on the facility surfaces. A complete 100% inactivation of S. enteritidis on plastic poultry coop surfaces was obtained by using UV + SAEW with an ACC of 90 mg/L for more than 70 s. The established model had a good fit that was quantified by the determination coefficient R2 (0.93) and a lack of fit test (P > 0.05). The bactericidal efficiency of UV + SAEW increased with greater ACC and increasing time. The findings of this study indicate that the combination treatment of UV and SAEW may be a promising disinfection method and could be used instead of SAEW alone, especially on rough materials in the presence of organic matter on poultry farms.

Exploring the attitudes of backyard poultry keepers to health and biosecurity

Backyard poultry producers have been associated with outbreaks of exotic (e.g. avian influenza) and endemic (e.g. Salmonella) disease all over the world. Currently in the UK the registration of small flocks (less than 50 birds) with local authorities is voluntary therefore there is not an accurate record of how many keepers and birds there are or where they are located. This lack of information (e.g. how many birds they keep, what type of birds, biosecurity measures they implement, etc.) may compromise contingency planning in an outbreak. A questionnaire was designed and implemented to gather information that will allow some of the knowledge gaps to be filled. The questionnaire comprised a total of 63 questions divided into seven sections (characterisation of the keeper, location of the enterprise and interest in poultry, poultry husbandry, transport of poultry, details about the poultry enterprise, marketing of poultry products, and poultry health/biosecurity). The questionnaire was implemented through an online survey, which was promoted through web links in smallholders’ websites, Facebook pages, the SRUC network, a course about poultry welfare, and leaflets at smallholders’ festivals. The survey was open from 24th October 2016 to 10th April 2017 and 176 questionnaires were completed by target respondents. Overall, our results suggest that the level of disease identified by backyard poultry keepers is low but the majority of the backyard poultry keepers also keep other livestock species, with an associated increased risk for disease transmission between species. Almost all respondents reported implementing at least one biosecurity measure, although in the majority of cases the measures taken were not comprehensive. A lack of knowledge about the legislation concerning poultry-keeping activities was evidenced by the answers given to some questions, such as the feeding of kitchen scraps and how to dispose of dead stocks. This investigation fills gaps in knowledge which will allow industry stakeholders and policy makers to adapt their current disease programmes and contingency plans to the reality of the health and biosecurity status of backyard poultry. It also highlights that government could play a more active role in engaging with backyard poultry keepers and in finding ways to disseminate reliable information generally and about disease outbreaks specifically, to these keepers.