Poultry Production Systems Research Articles

Assessing Antibiotic Residues in Poultry Eggs from Backyard Production Systems in Chile, First Approach to a Non-Addressed Issue in Farm Animals.

Simple SummaryEggs are a readily available and important food source for low income families that raise chicken in their households. It is therefore important to monitor if these products are safe for human consumption and contain no antibiotic residues that could lead to allergic reactions, intoxication, or antimicrobial resistance. However, little is known about the antimicrobial content of eggs consumed in rural households in Chile. Consequently, the aim of this study was to collect chicken eggs from rural households in the central region of Chile and screen them for antimicrobial activity. The results indicate that most collected eggs (73% of the 83 surveyed households), exhibited antimicrobial activity for at least one of the four tested antimicrobials. These results indicate that household members who consume these eggs are in danger of developing antibiotic-related illnesses and could contribute to antimicrobial resistance. Therefore, further studies are required to identify the exact compounds used to treat the chickens and to establish preventive measures to eradicate antimicrobial presence in their food supply.Eggs are the main product generated from backyard poultry production systems (BPS) because they can quickly be consumed and sold to meet essential family needs. Nevertheless, antimicrobial residues can accumulate in this product. The objective of this study was to evaluate the presence of antimicrobial residues in eggs produced by poultry kept in BPS in central Chile. To assess this, eggs were obtained from 83 BPS and analysed to evaluate the presence of antibiotic residues (families: tetracyclines, beta-lactams, aminoglycosides and macrolides), using a Four-Plate Test screening method for the detection, based on a bacterial growth inhibition method. Results show a lack of biosecurity procedures at BPS level, making these systems susceptible to the dissemination of antimicrobial residues. These include intensive animal production units in the proximity, and the presence of shared watercourses with other farms. Furthermore, 66% of the surveyed owners are indicated as giving pharmacological treatments to their chickens. Eggs from 61 BPS were positive for at least one antimicrobial. Fifty-three BPS were positive for more than one antimicrobial, and one BPS was positive for all four antimicrobials tested. Consequently, there is a risk that poultry eggs produced in BPS in central Chile carry residues of different families of antimicrobials.

Reconsidering the contribution of Canadian poultry production to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions: returning to an integrated crop–poultry production system paradigm

Public discourse around “greenhouse gases” (GHG) has led to the application of life-cycle assessments to ascertain the “global warming potential” of human activities. Life-cycle assessments applied to agricultural systems typically do not consider positive contributions (i.e., fixation of atmospheric carbon dioxide [CO2]) or consider complex interrelationships among commodities within the larger agricultural sector. The purpose of this article is to present an argument for a paradigm shift and that poultry production should be considered as a value-adding activity within modern crop production systems for GHG foot-printing purposes. To this end, a case study based on 2018 production data is presented where poultry production (chicken and eggs) was contextualized as a sub-component of wheat and corn production in the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Ontario, respectively. Total GHG footprint was calculated to be 3.05 and 3.29 million tonnes (MT) of CO2 equivalent (eq) for Alberta wheat and Ontario corn production, respectively. The GHG footprint of chicken production was calculated to be 0.39 and 1.38 MT CO2 eq in Alberta and Ontario, respectively. The GHG footprint of egg production calculated to be 0.12 and 0.47 MT of CO2 eq in Alberta and Ontario, respectively. When carbon (C) fixation as crop biomass is included in the scenario, the combined crop–poultry system C balance in 2018 favored net fixation of 40.70 and 35.15 MT of CO2 eq in Alberta and Ontario, respectively. The calculated total GHG footprint of poultry production in Alberta and Ontario corresponded to only 1.2 and 5.5% of the calculated total net CO2 fixation of their respective cropping systems. This case study demonstrates that by failing to acknowledge real world estimates of C fixation by crop biomass, GHG foot-printing exercises largely misrepresent reality and can thus perpetuate faulty assumptions about the environmental footprint of animal agriculture. The authors propose that the calculations presented herein provide grounds to postulate the hypothesis that modern, integrated crop-livestock agricultural systems in Canada (and elsewhere) act as net sinks for atmospheric CO2.

Development of an attract-and-infect device for biological control of lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in poultry houses

The lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus Panzer (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), is the most important pest in poultry production systems worldwide. Adults and larvae serve as alternative low-quality food for chickens and as a vehicle for animal pathogens resulting in significant economic losses for farmers. Control of this pest is usually performed through insecticide application during the interval between chicken flocks. However, due to the cryptic behaviour of this pest, chemical control is usually not effective. With the aim of developing a sustainable approach to control A. diaperinus, we evaluated integration of the A. diaperinus aggregation pheromone with a highly virulent strain (Unioeste 04) of the fungus Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill. (Ascomycota: Cordycipitaceae) using an attract-and-infect device. Significant levels of A. diaperinus mortality and lower numbers of offspring (larvae) were observed in laboratory experiments using Unioeste 04. Horizontal transmission of the Unioeste 04 strain through contaminated living A. diaperinus and cadavers was also observed. In field experiments in commercial poultry houses, a significant level of A. diaperinus mortality was observed in Unioeste 04-treated arenas. The results show that the A. diaperinus aggregation pheromone can be used as an attractant in a device impregnated with infective fungal propagules, increasing adult infection and enhancing disease spread. In addition, the use of the microbial control agent inside the device allows the fungus to remain effective for longer periods in the adverse conditions of the poultry house environment.

Regional Transmission and Reassortment of 2.3.4.4b Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) Viruses in Bulgarian Poultry 2017/18.

Between 2017 and 2018, several farms across Bulgaria reported outbreaks of H5 highly-pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses. In this study we used genomic and traditional epidemiological analyses to trace the origin and subsequent spread of these outbreaks within Bulgaria. Both methods indicate two separate incursions, one restricted to the northeastern region of Dobrich, and another largely restricted to Central and Eastern Bulgaria including places such as Plovdiv, Sliven and Stara Zagora, as well as one virus from the Western region of Vidin. Both outbreaks likely originate from different European 2.3.4.4b virus ancestors circulating in 2017. The viruses were likely introduced by wild birds or poultry trade links in 2017 and have continued to circulate, but due to lack of contemporaneous sampling and sequences from wild bird viruses in Bulgaria, the precise route and timing of introduction cannot be determined. Analysis of whole genomes indicates a complete lack of reassortment in all segments but the matrix protein gene (MP), which presents as multiple smaller clusters associated with different European 2.3.4.4b viruses. Ancestral reconstruction of host states of the hemagglutinin (HA) gene of viruses involved in the outbreaks suggests that transmission is driven by domestic ducks into galliform poultry. Thus, according to present evidence, we suggest the surveillance of domestic ducks as they are an epidemiologically relevant species for subclinical infection. Monitoring the spread due to movement between farms within regions and links to poultry production systems in European countries can help to predict and prevent future outbreaks. The 2.3.4.4b lineage which caused the largest recorded poultry epidemic in Europe continues to circulate, and the risk of further transmission by wild birds during migration remains.

Study of Indoor Environmental Facilities among the Poultry Production Systems from District Aurangabad (M.S.) India

Study of Indoor Environmental Facilities among the Poultry Production Systems from District Aurangabad (M.S.) India

Characterization of Village Poultry Production in Burkina Faso

This study aimed to characterize the village poultry production systems and to investigate the opportunities for its improvement in Burkina Faso. The study was carried out in 75 villages located in 8 regions involving 750 households. Data were collected by individual interviews and surveys supported with structured questionnaires.

Impact study on model livestock community development programme in some selected areas of Bangladesh

With a view to increase the productivity of existing backyard livestock and poultry production systems and thereby to improve the socio-economic status of the rural people, BLRI in collaboration with the Department of Livestock Services (DLS) initiated the study since April 2010. The specific objectives of the study were to disseminate the livestock technologies for increasing productivity through training and demonstration and to assess the impact of technological interventions on livestock productivity, socioeconomic improvement and changing livelihood status of rural farm families. The study was implemented initially at Kadamtoli under Belkuchi Upazila under Serajganj district and Chakpara and Bichamara villages under Naikhongchari Upazila under Banderban district which was later extended to Talukhabu village of Gongachara Upazila under Rangpur district. Through this project, technological support was provided to a total of 321, 218 and 780 farm households in Belkuchi, Naikhongchari and Gangachara upazila, respectively. In order to conduct the impact study, 90 farmers taking 30 from each Upazila were selected through simple random sampling technique. The ‘before’ and ‘after’ comparison was followed for assessing the impact. The t-statistic was applied to test the significance of relevant parameters. It was revealed that technological intervention has resulted to increase in livestock and poultry population and increase in productivity of milk (19-40%), duck and chicken eggs (22-36%) both horizontally and vertically. There was no occurrence of death of cattle, goat and poultry birds. Farmer’s overall income was boosted up which has contributed to possession of new household assets and addition of the already available assets. The consumption of all food items was increased as well. It was recommended that the programme may be replicated to other locations with new interventions.
 Bangladesh J. of Livestock Res. 20(1-2): 88-100, Jan-Dec 2013

Newcastle disease and its different applicable control options in poultry in Ethiopia

Backyard poultry production has been a long-established husbandry practice in Ethiopia. It is estimated that Ethiopia’s backyard poultry population is about 53.31 million. The productivity of backyard poultry is constrained by disease outbreak especially Newcastle disease. Newcastle disease is an endemic, highly contiguous, viral disease that affects birds in both intensive and extensive production system. Vaccination against Newcastle disease has been established as one of the many interventions’ strategies, geared towards the control of Newcastle disease outbreaks in these flock. Currently, in Ethiopia, four types of Newcastle disease vaccines (HB1, Lasota, IOENDV, and Thermo-stable–12 vaccine) are used for the control of Newcastle disease. The application of conventional vaccination strategy for the control of Newcastle disease has been effectively utilized in intensive poultry production system. However, these conventional vaccination strategies against Newcastle disease outbreaks have not been fully optimized in backyard poultry production. Consequently, the application of thermo-stable vaccine in the form of feed baits seems to be the most appropriate method for effective control of Newcastle disease in village backyard poultry. Many kinds of feed stuff have been tested as a carrier of the vaccine virus; some have been proved unsuitable, while others are relatively suitable. The proper application of vaccine and vaccination programs together with other measures like sanitation, good nutrition, high level of management in most of the commercial poultry farms in Ethiopia and avoiding of concurrent infections, the occurrence of Newcastle disease outbreaks is rarely reported.

Selective Breeding to Improve Productive and Reproductive Performances and Survivability of Indigenous Sakini Chicken

Indigenous chickens are quite popular in Family Poultry Production System (FPPS) in Nepal, but are constrained with their low productive performance. The present study evaluated the productive and reproductive performance of Sakini chicken in different filial generations and sexes. In addition, research also aimed at understanding the effect of generations on above performances. Initially, base populations (G-0) of Sakini were maintained by collecting eight weeks old birds from different agro-ecologial zones of Nepal. Performance of the birds of G-0 was evaluated based on weekly body weight (12-24 weeks), laying performance, fertility, hatchability, hatch weight and survivability. Selected birds of base population (G-0) were used to produce first (G-1), second (G-2) and third (G-3) generations through selective breeding in each generation. Similarly, body weights at hatching, 12 weeks, 16 weeks, 20 week and 24 weeks were significantly (p<0.001) improved from G0 to G3 and were also significantly (p<0.001) differ for sex (males were always heavier than females). Likewise, there was significant (p<0.05) improvement in egg production (per hen per year), age at first lay (days), body weight at sexual maturity, egg number and egg weight at 90 days of laying in progressive generations. Fertility, hatchability and survivability significantly (p<0.05) improved in selected generations in comparison to base population, whereas, no significant difference was obtained within the different selected population. Thus, indigenous Sakini chicken under this experiment performed better with respect to survivability, fertility and hatchability in later generations that provides ample scope of advancing selective breeding activities within the indigenous population in order to bring significant improvement in the overall productive performance of Sakini chicken in Nepal.

Genomic and Immunogenic Protein Diversity of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Isolated From Pigs in Great Britain: Implications for Vaccine Protection.

Erysipelas, caused by the bacterium Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, is re-emerging in swine and poultry production systems worldwide. While the global genomic diversity of this species has been characterized, how much of this genomic and functional diversity is maintained at smaller scales is unclear. Specifically, while several key immunogenic surface proteins have been identified for E. rhusiopathiae, little is known about their presence among field strains and their divergence from vaccines, which could result in vaccine failure. Here, a comparative genomics approach was taken to determine the diversity of E. rhusiopathiae strains in pigs in Great Britain over nearly three decades, as well as to assess the field strains’ divergence from the vaccine strain most commonly used in British pigs. In addition, the presence/absence and variability of 13 previously described immunogenic surface proteins was determined, including SpaA which is considered a key immunogen. We found a high diversity of E. rhusiopathiae strains in British pigs, similar to the situation described in European poultry but in contrast to swine production systems in Asia. Of the four clades of E. rhusiopathiae found globally, three were represented among British pig isolates, with Clade 2 being the most common. All British pig isolates had one amino acid difference in the immunoprotective domain of the SpaA protein compared to the vaccine strain. However, we were able to confirm using in silico structural protein analyses that this difference is unlikely to compromise vaccine protection. Of 12 other known immunogenic surface proteins of E. rhusiopathiae examined, 11 were found to be present in all British pig isolates and the vaccine strain, but with highly variable degrees of conservation at the amino acid sequence level, ranging from 0.3 to 27% variant positions. Moreover, the phylogenetic incongruence of these proteins suggests that horizontal transfer of genes encoding for antigens is commonplace for this bacterium. We hypothesize that the sequence variants in these proteins could be responsible for differences in the efficacy of the immune response. Our results provide the necessary basis for testing this hypothesis through in vitro and in vivo studies.

Research Note: Repetitive element–based polymerase chain reaction genotyping improves efficiency of Salmonella surveillance in a model broiler production system

The genetic relatedness and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Salmonella isolated from poultry and their environment were determined. One broiler breeder flock (BBF1) and 2 broiler flocks (BF1 and BF2) were reared over a 1.75-year period on the same poultry research farm. Hatching eggs were obtained from BBF1 to produce BF1 chicks, while BF2 chicks were progeny of a separate, unsampled broiler breeder flock. BF1 and BF2 were reared in the same housing facilities but 6 mo apart. Salmonella isolates were collected via litter sock sampling (BF1), cecal excision (BF1 and BF2), or cloacal swabs (BBF1). Serotyping identified Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Altona (SA) in BBF1 and S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Senftenberg (SS) in BF1 and BF2. Genotypic fingerprinting was achieved with Rep-PCR using the (GTG)5 primer and revealed sequence homology among Senftenberg isolates from BF1 and BF2. For each isolate, the minimum inhibitory concentration was determined for 27 antimicrobial agents using Sensititre plates with formularies specific to antimicrobials used in poultry production or those used to control gram negative pathogens. Isolates from the 3 flocks were resistant to clindamycin, erythromycin, novobiocin, penicillin, and tylosin tartrate and demonstrated intermediate resistance to azithromycin, florfenicol, and spectinomycin. These data demonstrated that serovar Altona and Senftenberg were harbored by poultry, the latter appeared to persist in broiler flocks, and both serotypes shared similar patterns of antimicrobial susceptibility in an integrated research operation. In the case of multiple Salmonella isolates, combining genotypic fingerprinting methods with serotyping of representative isolates would reduce the number of samples required for serotyping and more clearly identify relatedness of isolates. These methods facilitate effective surveillance in poultry production systems, thus allowing for implementation of precise Salmonella control measures.

Assessing the role of live poultry trade in community-structured transmission of avian influenza in China

The live poultry trade is thought to play an important role in the spread and maintenance of highly pathogenic avian influenza A viruses (HP AIVs) in Asia. Despite an abundance of small-scale observational studies, the role of the poultry trade in disseminating AIV over large geographic areas is still unclear, especially for developing countries with complex poultry production systems. Here we combine virus genomes and reconstructed poultry transportation data to measure and compare the spatial spread in China of three key subtypes of AIV: H5N1, H7N9, and H5N6. Although it is difficult to disentangle the contribution of confounding factors, such as bird migration and spatial distance, we find evidence that the dissemination of these subtypes among domestic poultry is geographically continuous and likely associated with the intensity of the live poultry trade in China. Using two independent data sources and network analysis methods, we report a regional-scale community structure in China that might explain the spread of AIV subtypes in the country. The identification of this structure has the potential to inform more targeted strategies for the prevention and control of AIV in China.

Drivers of Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production in Bangladesh: Dependencies and Dynamics of a Patron-Client Relationship.

Background: There is increasing concern around the use of antibiotics in animal food production and the risk of transmission of antimicrobial resistance within the food chain. In many low and middle-income countries, including Bangladesh, the commercial poultry sector comprises small-scale producers who are dependent on credit from poultry dealers to buy day-old chicks and poultry feed. The same dealers also supply and promote antibiotics. The credit system is reliant upon informal relationships among multiple actors as part of social capital. This paper aims to describe dependencies and relationships between different actors within unregulated broiler poultry production systems to understand the social and contextual determinants of antibiotic use in low-resource settings.Methods: We used a cross-sectional qualitative design including in-depth interviews among purposefully selected commercial poultry farmers (n = 10), poultry dealers (n = 5), sales representatives of livestock pharmaceutical companies (n = 3) and the local government livestock officer as a key-informant (n = 1). We describe the food production cycle and practices relating to credit purchases and sales using social capital theory.Findings: Poultry dealers provide credit and information for small-scale poultry farmers to initiate and operate their business. In return for credit, farmers are obliged to buy poultry feed and medicine from their dealer and sell their market-ready poultry to that same dealer. All farms applied multiple antibiotics to poultry throughout the production cycle, including banned antibiotics such as colistin sulfate. The relationship between dealers and poultry farmers is reciprocal but mostly regulated by the dealers. Dealers were the main influencers of decision-making by farmers, particularly around antibiotic use as an integral part of the production cycle risk management. Our findings suggest that strategies to improve antibiotic stewardship and responsible use should exploit the patron-client relationship which provides the social and information network for small-scale farmers.Conclusion: Social capital theory can be applied to the patron-client relationship observed among poultry farmers and dealers in Bangladesh to identify influences on decision making and antibiotic use. Within unregulated food production systems, strategies to promote the prudent use of antibiotics should target commercial feed producers and livestock pharmaceutical manufacturers as a first step in developing a sustainable poultry value chain.

Gastrointestinal microbiomes of broilers and layer hens in alternative production systems

Alternative poultry production systems consisting of free-range or pasture flock raised poultry continues to increase in popularity. Based on the perceived benefits of poultry products generated from these alternative poultry production systems, they have commercial appeal to consumers. Several factors impact the health and well being of birds raised and maintained in these types of production systems. Exposure to foodborne pathogens and potential for colonization in the gastrointestinal tract has to be considered with these types of production systems. The gastrointestinal tract microbial composition and function of birds grown and maintained in alternative poultry operations may differ depending on diets, breed, and age of bird. Dietary variety and foraging behavior are potential influential factors on bird nutrition. The gastrointestinal tract microbiomes of birds raised under alternative poultry production systems are now being characterized with next-generation sequencing to identify individual microbial members and assess the impact of different factors on the diversity of microbial populations. In this review, the gastrointestinal tract microbiota contributions to free-range or pasture-raised broiler and egg layer production systems, subsequent applications, and potential future directions will be discussed.

Nigerian Fulani Ecotype Chickens: Growth Performance under Two Production Systems

The study evaluated the growth performance of Nigerian Fulani ecotype chicken (NFEC) under intensive and pastured poultry production systems. Two hundred (200) day-old chicks of Nigerian Fulani ecotype chicken (NFEC) were obtained from established stocks of NFEC population at the Teaching and Research Farm, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. The chickens were separated randomly to intensive and pastured poultry production systems at 12 weeks of age. Data on body weight were taken weekly from day-old to 20 weeks. Data were analyzed using PROC GLM of SAS® at statistical significance level of P<0.05. Results showed significant effect of sex of chicken from the 10th to the 20th week of age (P<0.05). Significant interaction effect was observed between sex and production system at weeks 16 and 18 (P<0.05) when the male chickens under the intensive production system outpaced their male counterparts in the pastured poultry. Average daily gain for the period of 20 weeks was 6.83g and 9.21g for female and male chickens respectively. Weight gain pattern across weeks was not uniform. Therewas no significant difference in the growth rate in the two production systems (P>0.05).

Nigerian Fulani ecotype chickens : Estimation of growth curve parameters

The study modelled growth curves of Nigerian Fulani ecotype chickens (NFEC) under two production systems with four non-linear growth functions with a view to establishing growth descriptors for NFEC. Two hundred (200) day-old chicks of NFEC were obtained from an established population of NFEC at the Teaching and Research Farm, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. The chickens were separated randomly to intensive and pastured poultry production systems at 12 weeks of age. Data on body weight were taken weekly over a period of 20 weeks. Four non-linear growth functions including Gompertz, Logistic, Bertalanffy and Richard’s models were fitted using the NLIN procedure of SAS® while the best fit model was selected using the goodness-of-fit tests. For all the models, parameter (A), the asymptotic weight, ranged between 1800g and 2417g for male and 1208g and 1550g for female chickens respectively. Parameter (B), the scaling parameter ranged from 0.77 and 19.79. Parameter K, which is the maturity index, ranged between 0.16 and 3.97 for both sexes. The R2 values ranged between 0.9689 and 0.9987 for all the models fitted. Gompertz and Bertalanffy models emerged as the best fit functions. Growth curve parameters of NFEC in the pastured poultry system were not significantly different from those in the intensive system. The growth curve parameters estimated indicates that NFEC growth performance can be improved through effective breeding strategies and improved management practices.

Impact of COVID-19 and associated lockdown on livestock and poultry sectors in India.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the associated lockdown for a long period have created a significant adverse impact on different sectors, including that of the agriculture and other allied sub-sectors in India and several other countries. The present review aimed to depict the impact of this pandemic and the lockdown on the livestock and poultry sectors in the country, which has been one of the fastest-growing sectors in recent years. Inadequacy of country-wide information has been a major bottleneck for having a thorough understanding of the impact of the prolonged lockdown on different sub-sectors of livestock and poultry. In the present case, an in-depth analysis of the subject has been made through the collation of available published materials and information collected through public contacts. The pandemic and the associated lockdown has not only caused enormous distress to the millions of poor and marginal farmers for saving their crops and/or livestock and thereby assuring their livelihoods but also impacted the overall poultry, dairy, and other livestock production systems and associated value chains, nutrition and health care, and labor availability. The paper highlights various dimensions of the impacts, namely, reduction in demand of different commodities, wastage of the produce due to the closure of transport and market chains, distress sale of the produce, and labor shortage and revival strategies taken by the government and associated enterprises. The present impact study although gives a picture about the overall present scenario, a systematic study through the collection of primary data from all over the country is suggested, which will provide a holistic view of the impact on each of the sub-sectors and the associated value chains.

Assessment of Poultry Production System in Rwanda, A Case Study in Nyagatare District

A cross sectional study was conducted on 160 indigenous poultry farmers in Nyagatare District to assess the effect of poultry cages on increasing poultry production in smallholder low cost village poultry farmers in Nyagatare district. Data were collected through pre-tested semi-structured questionnaires, participatory rural appraisal, observations and interviews. Most of farmers kept the dwarf type of local chicken (53.5%), night poultry confinement still rare, low cages use, scavenging causing high mortality and predation of chicks. Neighbors (50.8%), markets (30%) were the mainly source of birds. Clutch size ranged from 5 to 18 eggs with mean of 13±2 hatchability and hen maturity age averaged was 7±2.1 month. Predation (42%), diseases (23%) and lack of credit (20%) were the main challenges. Low Productivity due to poor nutrition, genotype, diseases and management. Feed supplementation, selected good genotype, Cage use and disease control are recommended to improve growth rate and egg production.

<i>Campylobacter, Salmonella</i> and <i>Escherichia coli</i> Food Contamination Risk in Free-Range Poultry Production System

Livestock such as poultry is consumed as food worldwide and it constitutes one of the main protein sources for diners, as well as an important source of revenue generation for farmers. Poultry meat production chain identifies a significant role of the farm to folk. Most often, the systems used in poultry production can result in a higher prevalence of Campylobacter, Salmonella, and Escherichia coli contamination, leading to adverse health effects with detrimental consequences. The method of poultry keeping plays a significant role in the poultry meats’ outcome and its food safety standards. Farmers attempt to develop new poultry operations, however, there are two main possibilities; to operate within the present vertically integrated system which is incredibly good for disease prevention and to develop independently, or a smaller operation that is more animal friendly. This article reviews the available research on the impact of free-range poultry production systems on food safety, most importantly the prevalence and control of Campylobacter, Salmonella and Escherichia coli in free-range production systems. The results suggest a conflicting view when bacterial loads of poultry meat from conventional and free-range systems are compared. Studies have shown increased bacterial loads in a free-range production system.

Suitability of litter amendments for the Australian chicken meat industry

The Australian chicken meat indutstry is rapidly expanding due to the increasing consumption of chicken meat. As a result, the industry has growing issues of sourcing new bedding materials and disposing of spent litter, which can be attributed, in part, to a lack of widespread litter re-use for rearing chickens. According to insights and perspectives recently gathered from industry stakeholders, it is believed that re-using litter will become more common in the future, so as to reduce production costs and ease pressures on both the supply of new bedding materials and disposal of spent litter. However, there are potential risks that need to be addressed if litter re-use increases, particularly with regard to the production and mitigation of ammonia, which can negatively affect chicken health if not managed correctly. The present review discusses the potential benefits reported for different types of litter amendments, which have the primary goal of reducing ammonia volatilisation, but may also contribute to improvements in bird performance, welfare, pathogen loads, fertiliser value of spent litter, and reduced costs associated with purchasing new bedding materials. Acidifiers have been shown to be the most effective of all amendment types, with sodium bisulfate or alum being among the most commonly tested products mentioned in research literature. Litter amendments are currently rarely used in Australia, but it is hoped that the information provided in the present review, based mostly on overseas usage and research, will help inform future decision-making on the use of these products in Australian poultry production systems.