Poultry In India Research Articles

Isolation, serotype diversity and antibiogram of Salmonella enterica isolated from different species of poultry in India

ObjectiveTo study the occurrence and serotype diversity of Salmonella isolates in different species of poultry (chicken, emu and duck) and determine their resistance pattern against various antibiotics of different classes. MethodsAbout 507 samples comprising 202 caecal contents and 305 fecal samples from chicken, emu and duck were processed for isolation of Salmonella enterica. Salmonellae were isolated and detected by standard protocol of ISO 6579 Amendment 1: Annex D. Genetic confirmation was also made by using 16S rRNA genus specific PCR. Serotype specific PCR was also done to detect the most common serovars viz. Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Gallinarum. All obtained isolates were subjected to a set of 25 antibiotics to study their antibiogram by using Baeur–Kirby disk diffusion method. ResultsOut of 507 samples processed, 32 isolates of Salmonella enterica (18 from caecal contents and 14 from faecal samples) were obtained, of which 24 belonged to 6 different serovars, 6 were untypeable and 2 were rough strains. Salmonella Enteritidis was the most predominant serotype (9), followed by Salmonella Typhimurium (5), Salmonella Virchow (4), Salmonella Gallinarum (3), Salmonella Reading (2) and Salmonella Altona (1). Antibiotic resistance pattern was maximum (100%) to oxacillin, penicillin and clindamycin, followed by ampicillin (68.75%), tetracycline (65.62%), nalidixic acid (56.25%) and colistin (46.87%). High sensitivity of isolates was recorded for chloramphenicol (96.87%) followed by meropenem (84.37%). ConclusionsOccurrence of high proportion of serovars in our study which can cause serious gastroenteritis in humans is a matter of concern. Salmonella Altona has been detected for the first time in India from poultry. This serotype is known to cause serious outbreaks of gastroenteritis in humans. Multidrug resistant isolates were recovered at high percentage which can be attributed to non-judicious use of antibiotics both in prophylaxis and treatment regimen. This observation draws serious attention as poultry serves as an important source of transmission of these multidrug resistant Salmonella serovars to humans.

Molecular Epidemiology of Nontyphoidal Salmonella in Poultry and Poultry Products in India: Implications for Human Health.

Human infections with non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) serovars are increasingly becoming a threat to human health globally. While all motile Salmonellae have zoonotic potential, Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium are most commonly associated with human disease, for which poultry are a major source. Despite the increasing number of human NTS infections, the epidemiology of NTS in poultry in India has not been fully understood. Hence, as a first step, we carried out epidemiological analysis to establish the incidence of NTS in poultry to evaluate the risk to human health. A total of 1215 samples (including poultry meat, tissues, egg and environmental samples) were collected from 154 commercial layer farms from southern India and screened for NTS. Following identification by cultural and biochemical methods, Salmonella isolates were further characterized by multiplex PCR, allele-specific PCR, enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC) PCR and pulse field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). In the present study, 21/1215 (1.73%) samples tested positive for NTS. We found 12/392 (3.06%) of tissue samples, 7/460 (1.52%) of poultry products, and 2/363 (0.55%) of environmental samples tested positive for NTS. All the Salmonella isolates were resistant to oxytetracycline, which is routinely used as poultry feed additive. The multiplex PCR results allowed 16/21 isolates to be classified as S. Typhimurium, and five isolates as S. Enteritidis. Of the five S. Enteritidis isolates, four were identified as group D Salmonella by allele-specific PCR. All of the isolates produced different banding patterns in ERIC PCR. Of the thirteen macro restriction profiles (MRPs) obtained by PFGE, MRP 6 was predominant which included 6 (21%) isolates. In conclusion, the findings of the study revealed higher incidence of contamination of NTS Salmonella in poultry tissue and animal protein sources used for poultry. The results of the study warrants further investigation on different type of animal feed sources, food market chains, processing plants, live bird markets etc., to evaluate the risk factors, transmission and effective control measures of human Salmonella infection from poultry products.

Occurrence of Knemidokoptes mutans and Laminosioptes cysticola in backyard poultry in India.

Birds reared in backyard poultry farming system are more prone to parasitic infestation resulting in economic losses to rural community. The present study reports occurrence of Knemidokoptes mutans and Laminosioptes cysticola mites in a male Aseel bird. Clinical signs observed in the affected bird include hyperkeratosis with whitish film layer on shank and hock region of legs. Focal areas of sloughing of skin with oozing of blood were also observed on the back and on the legs. Examination of skin scrapings from the affected sites revealed different developmental stages of Knemidokoptes mutans and Laminosioptes cysticola mites. This paper reports occurrence of L. cysticola for the first time from India. The bird was treated with ivermectin injection through intramuscular route.

Isolation and Genetic Characterization of Influenza A (Subtype H5N1) Virus from Crows in India

We isolated two influenza A (subtype H5N1) viruses from crows in India, in 2011 and 2012. Nucleotide sequence of all eight genome segments of both the viruses (A/crow/India/ 11TI07/2011 and A/crow/India/01TR01/2012) was determined and used for analysis. The two iso - lates shared >99% nucleotide sequence identity in all the eight genes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that both the viruses belonged to haemagglutinin (HA) clade 2.3.2.1 of H5N1 viruses. Within clade 2.3.2.1, the crow viruses grouped with contemporary H5N1 viruses isolated from poultry in India; poultry, crows and environmental sampleas in Bangladesh; and poultry and wild birds in Bhutan. The viruses have the characteristic feature of high pathogenicity to chickens, and possessed avian-like (α 2, 3-linked sialic acid) receptor-specificity in the HA. Analysis of amino acid sequences in the neuraminidase (NA) and M2 indicated that the crow viruses are susceptible to currently available influenza drugs.

Suitability of specimen types for isolation of avian influenza viruses from poultry

In view of the outbreaks of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus in poultry in India, its impact on global public health and growing concerns of avian influenza (AI) viruses, surveys in wet poultry markets were conducted in the states of Maharashtra, West Bengal and Jharkhand in India during the period 2009-2012. During these surveys various types of samples from poultry were collected. During outbreaks and surveys in poultry, tracheal swabs (TS), cloacal swabs (CS), poultry drinking water (PDW) samples and fecal samples (FS) are preferred samples for AI diagnosis. The suitability of various types of poultry samples for AI virus isolation was analyzed. The parameters such as availability of specimen, ease of collection, quality of the specimen for the presence of contaminants such as organic debris or solid matter were considered for the analysis. A total of 2,405 samples were collected, which included 1,297 TS, 1,012 CS, 79 PDW, and 17 FS. Out of 2,309 TS and CS samples 1,752 samples were paired samples, collected from 876 birds. All samples were processed for virus isolation and identification. Of the 2,405 samples AI H9N2 was isolated from 199 samples (8.27%). The virus isolation rate was significantly higher in PDW samples (21.5%) (P<0.05) and TS samples (12.1%), in comparison with CS (2.3%) (P<0.001). Other viruses isolated were AI H4N6 and HPAI H5N1viruses; however the number of isolates of AI H4N6 and H5N1 were not sufficient for comparison. In conclusion, the PDW and TS samples were suitable for AI H9N2 virus isolation from poultry.

Genetic and antigenic analysis of H5N1 viruses for selection of HA-donor virus for vaccine strains

Genetic and antigenic analysis of H5N1 viruses, isolated in India during a period from year 2006 to 2010, was carried out for selection of the potential H5-HA (haemagglutinin) gene donor virus for developing a reverse genetics based DIVA marker H5 vaccine for poultry in India. Out of the 47 H5N1 viruses (clade 2.2), 14 representative viruses were selected on the basis of amino acid sequence analysis of HA1 gene for further antigenic characterization. Using antigenic cartography, an antigenic map was constructed based on the data of cross-HI (haemagglutinin inhibition) titration of 14 sera versus 14 viruses to visualize the relatedness among the antigens and antigenic coverage of the sera. Sera against five H5N1 viruses (A/crow/Assam/142119/2008, A/chicken/West Bengal/100879/2008, A/chicken/West Bengal/155505/2009, A/chicken/West Bengal/80995/2008 and A/chicken/West Bengal/81760/2008) exhibited maximum (100%) antigenic coverage, hence, were selected as the potential HA donor viruses. However, the virus strain A/chicken/West Bengal/80995/2008 matched completely with the consensus amino acid sequence of the 47 viruses, therefore, was considered the best HA donor candidate out of the five showing 100% antigenic coverage. The present study demonstrates a stepwise methodology for logical selection of vaccine strain or HA gene donor strain for developing H5 vaccines using genetic and antigenic data.

Avian influenza H9N2 seroprevalence among poultry workers in Pune, India, 2010.

Avian influenza (AI) H9N2 has been reported from poultry in India. A seroepidemiological study was undertaken among poultry workers to understand the prevalence of antibodies against AI H9N2 in Pune, Maharashtra, India. A total of 338 poultry workers were sampled. Serum samples were tested for presence of antibodies against AI H9N2 virus by hemagglutination inhibition (HI) and microneutralization (MN) assays. A total of 249 baseline sera from general population from Pune were tested for antibodies against AI H9N2 and were negative by HI assay using ≥40 cut-off antibody titre. Overall 21 subjects (21/338 = 6.2%) were positive for antibodies against AI H9N2 by either HI or MN assays using ≥40 cut-off antibody titre. A total of 4.7% and 3.8% poultry workers were positive for antibodies against AI H9N2 by HI and MN assay respectively using 40 as cut-off antibody titre. This is the first report of seroprevalence of antibodies against AI H9N2 among poultry workers in India.

Animal breeding in India - a time for reflection, and action

Animal breeding in India - a time for reflection, and action

Sea buckthorn: new feed opportunity for poultry in cold arid Ladakh region of India

Poultry farming is very difficult in the cold arid Himalayan region of India, where the altitude is 3048–3658 m above mean sea level (MSL) and the temperature ranges from +35°C to -35°C. Poultry farming in Leh-Ladakh has been a venture that has generally taken a back seat in this cold, arid region for a number of reasons. Firstly, the Buddhist community makes up the majority of the population in this region, and, because of their largely vegetarian lifestyle; they generally avoid killing animals on principal. The second reason is the lack of availability of any specific high yielding variety of layer or broiler breed suited to such high altitude. Evaluation of the feeding value of sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides spp. sinensis) through feed analysis considered five factors; crude protein, lysine, methionine+cystine, calcium and phosphorus. The comprehensive values of sea buckthorn seeds, leaves and fruit residues rank in the fifth, sixth and ninth position among the 16 types of feed and seed reported. The leaves and fruit residues of sea buckthorn are suitable for use in livestock and poultry fodders. The weight and egg rate of poultry are increased greatly after feeding poultry with the leaves, seeds, and fruit residues of sea buckthorn. The use of leaves, seeds and fruit residues of sea buckthorn have potential as a feed material for livestock and poultry in India.

An avian influenza A(H11N1) virus from a wild aquatic bird revealing a unique Eurasian-American genetic reassortment

Influenza surveillance in different wild bird populations is critical for understanding the persistence, transmission and evolution of these viruses. Avian influenza (AI) surveillance was undertaken in wild migratory and resident birds during the period 2007–2008, in view of the outbreaks of highly pathogenic AI (HPAI) H5N1 in poultry in India since 2006. In this study, we present the whole genome sequence data along with the genetic and virological characterization of an Influenza A(H11N1) virus isolated from wild aquatic bird for the first time from India. The virus was low pathogenicity and phylogenetic analysis revealed that it was distinct from reported H11N1 viruses. The hemagglutinin (HA) gene showed maximum similarity with A/semipalmatedsandpiper/Delaware/2109/2000 (H11N6) and A/shorebird/Delaware/236/2003(H11N9) while the neuraminidase (NA) gene showed maximum similarity with A/duck/Mongolia/540/2001(H1N1). The virus thus possessed an HA gene of the American lineage. The NA and other six genes were of the Eurasian lineage and showed closer relatedness to non-H11 viruses. Such a genetic reassortment is unique and interesting, though the pathways leading to its emergence and its future persistence in the avian reservoir is yet to be fully established.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11262-010-0487-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Avian flu: Examining role of ducks in Indian context

Avian flu: Examining role of ducks in Indian context

Detection of virulent Marek's disease virus in poultry in India

Marek's disease virus (MDV) isolated from poultry flocks in three states of India was monitored for the virus occurrence in the field. The MDV genome was isolated from feather follicles, spleen, and liver of the chicken (173 samples). Twenty two samples were positive for MDV genome in PCR and belonged to the serotype 1. The sequencing of MEQ gene of 11 samples revealed that nucleotide sequences of the isolate Ind-KA-01-06 was similar to the very virulent MDV, strain RB-1B. In situ hybridization studies also confirmed a presence of MDV serotype 1 in the infected liver tissues. Furthermore, the ability of the virus to induce apoptosis detected by flow cytometry showed that the virulent MDV induced apoptosis more efficiently than Turkey herpesvirus (HVT) vaccine virus. The present study showed the presence of virulent/very virulent MDV strains in the Indian poultry flocks.

Isolation of atypical enteropathogenicEscherichia coliand Shiga toxin 1 and 2f-producingEscherichia colifrom avian species in India

To study the prevalence and characterize atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) and Shiga toxin producing E. coli (STEC) in avian species in India. Two hundred and twelve faecal samples collected from 62 chickens, 50 ducks and 100 pigeons were investigated for the presence of stx(1), stx(2), eae and ehxA virulence genes by multiplex PCR. In all, 42 E. coli isolates (25 chicken, 2 duck and 15 pigeon) possessed at least one virulence gene. Out of these, nine (4.24%) isolates were STEC and 33 (15.56%) were EPEC. All isolates from duck and chicken were EPEC while among 15 pigeon isolates nine (60%) were STEC and six (40%) were EPEC. Among the STEC isolates four each carried stx(1) or stx(2) and one possessed both stx(1) and stx(2). Subtype analysis of stx revealed the presence of stx(2f) in four STEC isolates. None of the STEC isolates carried stx(1c), stx(2c), stx(2d) or stx(2e). Isolates carrying stx(2f) demonstrated vero cell toxicity. One each belonged to serogroup O17 and O78, while one was rough and the other untypeable. All EPEC isolates were atypical as they lacked bfpA. This appears to be the first report of detection of stx(2f) from India. The study established the presence of stx(1) and stx(2f) containing E. coli in pigeons and atypical EPEC in poultry in India. Pigeons might serve as vectors for transmission of STEC to environment and humans. Taking into account the close contact between fanciers and pigeons, these findings warrant a more critical appraisal of these zoonotic pathogens in pigeons and humans.

Characterization of the complete genome of influenza A (H5N1) virus isolated during the 2006 outbreak in poultry in India

An outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in poultry was reported from Nandurbar and Jalgaon districts of Maharashtra and adjoining areas of Uchhal in Gujarat and Burhanpur in Madhya Pradesh in India from January to April, 2006. In the present study, the full genome of two previously uncharacterized strains of H5N1 viruses isolated at the National Institute of Virology (NIV), Pune, from post-mortem tissues of chicken collected from Navapur, Nandurbar district during the outbreak, has been presented. All the genes belong to clade 2.2 of the Z genotype and are close to the 2006 isolates from Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, Italy, and Krasnodar. In a study reported earlier, based on the partial gene sequences of HA, the authors (Pattnaik et al.) hypothesized that the viruses in Jalgaon and Navapur, causing outbreaks 12 days apart, were introduced at different times from different sources. However, our Navapur isolates are closer to the isolate reported from Jalgaon than that from Navapur. Molecular markers suggest that the isolates are sensitive to both drugs Oseltamivir and Amantadine. Amino acid residues responsible for pathogenesis, glycosylation, and receptor binding have also been discussed. The relationship between the Indian viruses and those in the East Africa/West-Asia flyway of migratory birds and the position of Nandurbar in this route suggests that the viruses in India may have been introduced through migratory birds although the role of trade as a possible route of introduction of the virus cannot be ruled out.

A Comparison Study on Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Campylobacter spp. Isolates from Faecal Samples of Domestic Animals and Poultry in India and Iran

A Comparison Study on Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Campylobacter spp. Isolates from Faecal Samples of Domestic Animals and Poultry in India and Iran

Chrysosporium tropicum as a probable cause of mycosis of poultry in India.

Chrysosporium tropicum was isolated from comb lesions in two different breeds of chickens in India and subcultures were shown to be pathogenic when inoculated onto prepared skin of guinea pigs. This report provides additional evidence to consider Ch. tropicum as a pathogenic fungus and a probable cause of a dermatomycosis in chickens.

Book Review

GUPTA, S., ed. Indian Poultry Industry Yearbook 1973–74. Indian Poultry Industry Yearbook, 2C/34 New Rohtak Road, New Delhi, India 110005. XII + 274 pp. Rs. 35; $10.00.The Yearbook, the first ever published, covers a wide range of information concerning poultry in India—past, present and future. It is divided into four sections: General, Technical, Directory, and Who’s Who.The first section, General, reviews the Indian poultry industry through the five year plans in respect to all the disciplines of poultry science, including contributions of international agencies. It also deals with future planning, financing poultry farming, and scientific management techniques. There is a Glossary of some 200 terms.The second section, Technical, provides information with regard to education, extension and research institutions, listed by states, including personnel and research projects. There is a Bibliography of some 150 books and 300 scientific articles. Standardization and quality control of feed, eggs, .

A Serological Investigation to Determine Respiratory Infections of Poultry in India

A plurality of agents of varying pathogenic potentials are involved in respiratory infections of poultry (4). Antibodies to pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO) are known to be widespread in India (1,3,7,10,11). Serological evidence for the presence of antibodies to infectious bronchitis (IB) and infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) has been presented on the basis of a report received from Dr. Bankowski of the University of California, to whom were forwarded some sera for diagnosis (12). Antibodies to Chick Embryo Lethal Orphan (CELO) virus have not yet been reported from India. Except for the surveys to assess the presence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum, no comprehensive serological investigations of respiratory infections have been reported. This paper presents results of a simplified qualitative procedure utilizing a minimum number of eggs per serum for detection of antbodies against 3 viruses (IB, ILT, and CELO) besides M. gallisepticum.

A Preliminary Report on the Occurrence of Infectious Laryngotracheitis of Poultry in India

THE aetiological role of viruses in respiratory affections of poultry has long been recognized in foreign countries, but aside from Ranikhet disease and fowl pox, very little work has been done in this country on avian respiratory diseases in general and respiratory viruses in particular. There appears to be no authentic record of the occurrence of infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) infectious bronchitis (IB) or other newly discovered viruses in India. Some attempts have been made in this laboratory during the last two years to elucidate the possible existence of some hitherto unknown viral entities associated with the so-called chronic respiratory disease (CRD) and other involvements simulating to CRD. The present report deals with the occurrence of ILT in India. MATERIALS AND METHODSMaterials for isolation of the virus included pieces of lungs and trachea collected from birds with respiratory disease of the College Poultry Farm submitted for routine post mortem examination.…

Studies on the Pathology of Chronic Respiratory Disease of Poultry in India

Abstract THE role of pleuropneumonialike organisms (PPLO) in relation to chronic respiratory disease (CRD) of poultry has long been recognized by several workers (Nelson, 1935; Delaplane and Stuart, 1943; Markham and Wong, 1952; and Jungherr and Luginbuhl, 1952). However, the difficulty in producing the clinical manifestations of a natural outbreak by experimental inoculation of PPLO has been realized by many workers. Jungherr et al. (1955) reported the occurrence of histopathologic lesions of CRD in birds which did not show gross lesions and could be considered as uncomplicated cases of CRD. Smibert et al. (1959) also reproduced lymphofollicular lesions in air-sac of 4-week-old germ-free turkeys by inoculation of PPLO alone. Adler (1960), Jungherr (1960), Olesiuk and Van Roekel (1960) reported similar lesions by PPLO alone. However, the lympho-follicular lesions are reported to have been produced in lungs and air sacs by Fahey and Crawley virus alone (Johnson and Domermuth, 1956). Beasley et al.…