Postpartum Behavior Research Articles

Maternal postpartum behaviors and mother-infant relationship during the first year of life

Objective: To assess the hypothesis that maternal postpartum behaviors toward the newborn may predict the quality of the maternal-infant relationship during the first year. Design: Prospective, non-randomized, longitudinal cohort study of 174 maternal-infant dyads. Methods: A Postpartum Parenting Behavior Scale (PPBS) was formulated to measure clearly defined observed maternal behaviors toward the infant shortly after birth. The quality of the maternal-infant relationship was assessed at 6 months after birth with the Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training (NCAST) Feeding Scale and at 12 months after birth with the NCAST Teaching Scale and Ainsworth Strange Situation. Results: The PPBS score correlated significantly with the Feeding Scale score (r =.27, P <.005) and with the Teaching Scale score (r =.23, P <.01). Mothers whose infants were later classified as securely attached in the Ainsworth Strange Situation had higher PPBS scores than mothers of infants classified as insecurely attached (mean ± SD: 5.18 ± 1.51 vs 4.63 ± 1.69, respectively, P <.05). In regression models adjusting for social and demographic factors, the PPBS remained a significant predictor of the Feeding Scale score, the Teaching Scale score, and security of attachment. Conclusions: Maternal behaviors in the immediate postpartum period may aid in predicting quality of the maternal-infant relationship during the subsequent 12 months, suggesting the potential for early identification of suboptimal parenting. (J Pediatr 2001;138:905-9)

Behavioural interactions between West African dwarf nanny goats and their twin-born kids during the first 48 h post-partum

West African dwarf nanny goats and their twin-born kids were tested to determine their behavioural response to separation and their mutual recognition during the first 48 h post-partum. Does and their kids were given scores ranging from 1 to 5, depending on how they performed in the tests. Animals that showed maximum response and recognition ability were given a score of 5, while those with minimum response and recognition ability scored 1. The kids were prevented from sucking 2 h prior to the tests, which were carried out at 18, 24, 36 and 48 h post-partum. Chi-square procedure was used to determine whether age, sex and birthweight of kids as well as hours post-partum and parity of dams had any effect on these post-partum behaviours. Out of 48 twin-born kids tested, 32 (67%) responded actively to separation from dams (i.e. had scores of 3 or more). The age, sex and birthweight of kids did not significantly affect ( P>0.05) their response to separation from their dams. The hours post-partum and the parity of does also did not affect their response to separation from their kids. The dam recognition ability of twin-born kids was very poor. Out of a total of 48 kids tested, only 17 (35%) were able to recognize their dams (i.e. had scores of 3 or more). Even at 36 h, only four out of 14 (26%) could recognize their dams. It was only at 48 h that the majority of kids tested (i.e. 75%) successfully identified their dams. At 48 h, the dam recognition ability of kids was significantly better ( P<0.05) than that of 18-h-old kids. Sex and birthweight of 24–48-h-old twin-born kids did not significantly affect ( P>0.05) their ability to recognize their dams. The majority of does tested (i.e. 20 out of 24) were able to recognize their twin-born kids. The hour post-partum and parity of does did not significantly affect ( P>0.05) their kid recognition ability.

The Nature of the Mother's Tie to Her Infant: Maternal Bonding under Conditions of Proximity, Separation, and Potential Loss

Attachment has generally been examined from the infant's perspective. We focused on mothers' post-partum thoughts and behaviors. Guided by an ethological approach, maternal bonding was examined under conditions of proximity, separation, and potential loss. Ninety-one mothers were interviewed: mothers of full-term infants who maintained continuous proximity to the infant, mothers of healthy premature infants who were separated from the infant, and mothers of very low birthweight infants who experienced potential loss and prolonged separation. Mothers of term infants reported medium-to-high levels of preoccupations with thoughts of infant safety and well-being. Preoccupations increased with separation (Group 2) and significantly decreased with impending loss (Group 3). Attachment behaviors and representations were the highest among mothers of term infants and declined linearly with the duration of mother-infant separation. Maternal trait anxiety and depression were related respectively to higher levels of preoccupations and reduced attachment behaviors and representations, independent of the infant medical condition and mother-child separation. Discussion focused on the comparability of maternal and infant attachment in relation to the neurobiological system underlying bond formation.

Behavioural relationships between Djallonke and Sahellian ewes and their lambs during the first 24 h post-partum

Djallonke, Sahellian crossbred ewes and their lambs were tested to find out their behavioural response to separation and their mutual recognition within the first 24 h post-partum. To determine whether age, sex, and birth weight of lambs and parity of dams had an effect on these post-partum behaviours, chi-square procedure was used to compare the scores of the different groups of lambs and ewes. The age, sex and birth weight of lambs did not affect their behavioural response to separation from their dams. Primiparous ewes exhibited a significantly greater concern to separation from their lambs than multiparous ewes ( P<0.05). This was presumably because the multiparous ewes might have experienced temporary separation from their lambs before in previous lambings. In the case of the primiparous ewes, this was their first experience and the situation was therefore more stressful. Even though there were no statistically significant differences ( P>0.05) between 12 h, 18 h and 24 h old lambs in their ability to recognize their dams, there was a trend of increasing ability of lambs to make more correct choices as they grew older. Nineteen out of 41 (46%) lambs tested were able to recognize their dams. The sex of the lamb and the parity of ewe had no significant effect ( P>0.05) on the mutual recognition of lambs and their dams. There was also no significant difference between lighter and heavier lambs in their dam recognition ability at 12 h of age.

Sex hormones and pregnancy in rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are autoimmune disorders with a preponderance in females. RA and SLE differ in their response to sex hormones. Disease development of RA is mitigated by estrogen and pregnancy whereas SLE tends to flare during pregnancy and in response to estrogen. Pregnancy improves the symptoms of RA in about 75% of pregnant patients, but relapses within six months postpartum in 90% of cases. RA is regarded as a T cell-mediated and TH1 immune response-driven disease. Pregnancy induces a shift from TH1 to TH2 immune response, increasing the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4 and IL-10, which may contribute to gestational amelioration of RA. Prospective studies of SLE pregnancies indicate that about 50% of patients experience a flare, however, with no permanent aggravation of the disease. Lupus nephritis, presence of antiphospholipid antibodies, and a previous history of pregnancy loss increase the risk of complications during pregnancy and fetal loss. The marked increase of estrogen and progesterone during pregnancy seems to enhance some of the manifestations of SLE. The shift to a TH2 immune response may trigger SLE manifestations that are dependent on humoral immune responses such as lupus nephritis. Another factor stimulating immune responses is the pituitary hormone prolactin, which has been found elevated in SLE patients of both sexes and correlated to disease activity in several studies. The hyperprolactinemia of lactation seems to influence postpartum behavior of SLE as well as RA.

Perinatal stimulation and adaptation of the neonate.

The present report describes psychobiological studies of behavior around the time of birth. An adaptive, ecological perspective is presented in which stimulation of the fetus and newborn is purported to instigate adaptive postpartum behavior. Studies describing the perinatal sensory environment are reviewed, with a consideration of emergent sensory function of the fetus. It is asserted that afferent input associated with parturition perturbs the fetus and neonate, producing a general arousal state that facilitates breathing, suckling, and early learning. The view developed herein is that perinatal sensory input induces and canalizes the newborn's behavior, thereby regulating adaptive postpartum function. Deviations in afferent input may alter ontogenetic trajectories and compromise developmental outcome by reducing availability of conditions necessary for adequate postpartum adaptation.

Women's Decisions about Breastfeeding and Maternal Employment

The last two decades have seen rapid increases in incidence of breastfeeding in United States. While fewer than 30% of women breastfed their infants during 1960s, by 1980s this figure was more than 50% (Ryan, Pratt, et al., 1991). Breastfeeding has been encouraged because it is believed to provide superior nutrition and immunological and psychological benefits to infant, and for mother, reduced risk of breast cancer, faster weight loss following delivery, and improved mother-child bonding (Lawrence, 1989). The recommended duration of breastfeeding is now 6 months, and national health goals call for increases in breastfeeding and duration of breastfeeding (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 1989). In recent decades there also have been sharp increases in labor force participation of mothers with young children. Currently, more than half of women with children less than 1 year old are in labor market, compared to fewer than 20% percent of mothers with 1-year-olds in early 1960s (O'Connell, 1990). Since it is widely assumed that employment and breastfeeding are relatively incompatible, breastfeeding proponents have expressed concern about potentially negative health consequences of increased postpartum employment (Barber-Madden, 1990; La Leche League, 1981; U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 1984). Evidence from past studies suggests a negative association between women's employment and breastfeeding behaviors in U.S. In this study, I use data from 1988 National Survey of Family Growth to clarify these relationships, and I test hypothesis that breastfeeding and postpartum employment conflict. Ultimately, this research addresses how women determine their work and family roles. While breastfeeding is not a role per se, it involves an individual decision about appropriate way of engaging in maternal role. As Van Esterik (1992, p. 3) has argued, the conflict between women's productive and reproductive lives is most acute and visible for breastfeeding, working mothers. By considering relationship between breastfeeding and maternal employment, this study adds to a broader literature about conflicts between women's work and maternal roles. Theoretical Perspective Role Incompatibility: Employee Versus Breastfeeding Mother The concept of role conflict (or role incompatibility) has been widely used in studying relationships between women's work and family roles (Moen, 1992; Myrdal & Klein, 1956; Voyandoff, 1984). Women may face role incompatibility if their efforts to fulfill demands of work conflict with their ability to fulfill family demands, and vice versa (Goode, 1960; Merton, 1957). This concept suggests that a woman may face role conflict when she tries to be both an employee and a mother who breastfeeds her child (Blum, 1993; Blum & Vanderwater, 1993; Van Esterik, 1989, 1992). I theorize that women may find these roles incompatible because of both structural and attitudinal conflicts. Women may face attitudinal conflicts between breastfeeding and postpartum employment because each role makes different normative and social demands. The public discourse on motherhood increasingly considers breastfeeding as something that good mothers do for their infants. At same time, as more women work outside home, growing acceptance of maternal employment has led to changes in social construction of motherhood. For instance, increased reliance on nonmaternal child care implies, to some degree, that mother is not unique in her ability to care for her infant (Mason & Kuhlthau, 1989). This potentially conflicts with breastfeeding, which is time-intensive and emphasizes a woman's unique ability to meet her infant's needs. When women make their decisions about postpartum behaviors, they face challenge of balancing these social expectations. Breastfeeding as a visible embodiment of motherhood further conflicts with attitudes at work. …

Anti-progesterone effects on maternal recognition and behaviour imprinted during first pregnancy in mice

Anti-progesterone treatment using specific anti-progesterone antibodies or a progesterone receptor (PR) antagonist during first pregnancy impairs postpartum maternal behaviour in mice. This effect is demonstrable only if the treatment is given during pregnancy but not immediately after parturition. The purpose of the present studies was to investigate if maternal behaviour is also impaired by anti-progesterone treatment in subsequent pregnancies. Studies with a monoclonal antibody to progesterone (DB3; 4.5 nmol/mouse) showed that injection of females on day 17 of second pregnancy did not cause maternal rejection but the latency of pup retrieval was prolonged especially during the first 3 days of lactation. This phenomenon was not observed in animals that had previous experience of full length lactation. Experiments were carried out with mifepristone (RU486; 10 micrograms/mouse) injected at day 17 of first, second or third pregnancies. Pup rejection (22.5% vs 12.3%) and prolongation of the retrieval latency (62.3 +/- 13.3 vs 19.7 +/- 6.5 s; P < 0.02) were observed following the first pregnancy. No abnormal behavioural effects were found in mothers treated in second or third pregnancy who had prior full length lactation experience. Control females subjected to only one pup retrieval test after first delivery rejected their pups if treated in their second pregnancy (27.3% vs 4.4%; P < 0.001) and displayed a marginal prolongation of the retrieval latency period (20.9 +/- 7.0 vs 7.4 +/- 2.6 s). Anti-progesterone treatment had no negative influence when administered during third pregnancy.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Postpartum patients' knowledge, risk perceptions, and behaviors pertaining to childhood injuries

The purpose of this study was to assess postpartum patients' knowledge, risk perceptions, and behaviors pertaining to a variety of childhood injuries. Although the respondents did demonstrate some knowledge of injury prevention strategies, deficits were noted in the areas of burns, motor vehicle injuries, drownings, and falls, as well as in the concept that injuries, in some children, are unavoidable. Results showed that greater than 50% of mothers did not know the temperature of their hot water tank, 22.4% who had other children under the age of four did not use car safety seats with them, and only 43% of the mothers knew how to perform infant cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Recommendations for program development in parenting classes are included in addition to the roles of nurses and nurse-midwives in injury prevention program activities.

Contraceptive Failure Rates in Developing Countries: Evidence from the Demographic and Health Surveys

The failure of the 2 surveys most frequently used for descriptions of contraceptive behavior--the World Fertility Survey and the Contraceptive Prevalence Survey--to collect data on duration of use and reasons for discontinuation has impeded accurate estimates of contraceptive failure rates in developing countries. The Demographic Health Survey (DHS) on the other hand collects information form women 15-49 years of age on their contraceptive history for the interval preceding each birth that occurred within the 5 years preceding the interview. In this analysis life table estimates of contraceptive failure for 9 Latin American 3 Asian and 3 North African countries with completed DHS were compared with previous estimates derived from clinical trials or specialized surveys. The contraceptive prevalence rate was below 40% in only 4 countries (Guatemala Bolivia Egypt and Morocco) and above 60% in an additional 4 countries (Brazil Colombia Sri Lanka and Thailand). The probability of becoming pregnancy in the 1st year of use was calculated through use of the life table method. Overall the median 1st-year failure rates were 5.9% for the pill 3.4% for the IUD 19.9% for rhythm and 12.5% for withdrawal. However the failure rate exceeded 20% for withdrawal in 5 countries and for rhythm in 7 countries. For the pill and IUD the failure rate was greater than 10% in only 2 and 1 country respectively. Method-specific failure rates were lowest in the Asian countries and those with a strong family planning program effort rating. Failure rates based on the DHS data are roughly consistent with those reported earlier. To further eliminate variation due to data reporting problems future DHS questionnaire will include a monthly calendar and items on pregnancies and births in that period reasons for contraceptive discontinuation and postpartum behavior.

Resumption of post-partum oestrous behaviour and associated plasma progesterone profiles in Menz ewes

ABSTRACTFifty Ethiopian Menz ewes maintained on pasture grazing with uncontrolled mating showed ovarian cyclicity at all times of the year. Conception rates to first, second and third service were 78, 18 and 4%, respectively. Mean post-partum anoestrous interval was 76·1 (s.e. 4·6) days. Two-thirds of ewes conceived before lamb weaning at 90 days and had 8 month lambing intervals. Twice weekly progesterone determinations showed that 67% of ewes exhibited a silent ovulation 66·4 (s.e. 10·5) days post partum, 12% of oestrous cycles were longer than 20 days and 8% of heats were false or anovulatory. It was concluded that Menz ewes have the natural potential for three lambings in 2 years, under adequate nutrition. Their better management and genetic improvement should further reduce current lambing intervals and increase annual reproductive rates.

Morphine effects on maternal aggression, pup care and analgesia in mice

In order to assess the respective contribution of opioid receptors to the behavioral and physiological characteristics of lactating animals, we challenged mice with morphine at different phases of the lactation period. Sensitivity to morphine's effects on aggressive behavior, pup care, pain response and body temperature were measured. Lactating mice were assigned to 1 of the 3 weeks of lactation and to 1 of 5 doses of morphine sulfate (0, 1, 3, 6, 10 mg/kg IP). After morphine administration, rectal temperature and tail flick were assessed. Behavior towards three pups was observed for 5 min, followed by an aggression test with a female intruder. Morphine significantly increased the latency to retrieve pups and decreased aggressive behavior at doses that do not decrease motoric activity. Compared to virgin mice, lactating females are less sensitive to the analgesic actions of morphine but similarly sensitive to its hypothermic properties. The fact that virgin and lactating females can be distinguished on the basis of their sensitivity to morphine-induced analgesia suggests that lactating animals undergo functionally relevant changes in opioid regulation of pain sensitivity. Furthermore, morphine's specific and potent inhibition of pup retrieval supports the hypothesis that decreased opioid peptide activity is important for the expression of certain postpartum behaviors.

Contraceptive prevalence and continuation: a longitudinal analysis of traditional and other method users in the Philippines

Contraceptive prevalence rates and estimates of continuation rates are derived from unique longitudinal data on post-partum behaviour collected in the Cebu region of the Philippines. Continuation rates vary by base-line and time-varying socioeconomic characteristics for certain contraceptive methods and for using no contraception. Calendar rhythm users have a much lower relative continuation rate than has been found in cross-sectional samples. For women who use a contraceptive method, breast-feeding does not appear to influence contraceptive continuation, but for those who use no methods, breast-feeding appears to substitute for other forms of contraception. Profiles by socioeconomic characteristics of those who continue to use each type of contraceptive method and who use no method could be used to direct family planning programmes towards population sub-groups. The results suggest that for women wishing to postpone a pregnancy, a family planning programme aimed at the young and less educated could effectively increase contraceptive use and continuation.

Feral goat social organization: A review and comparative analysis

Measurements indexing the mating system, home range, peri-parturient behaviour, and group size and composition of feral goats were used to compare studied populations. Geographically diverse populations were similar in most behavioural characteristics and their social systems had similar structures. However, post-partum behaviour and mating systems showed both quantitative and qualitative differences between populations. These similarities and differences are discussed in relation to the diverse selection history of feral goats. It is postulated that selective changes occurring during domestication may contribute to the variability observed in post-partum behaviour and mating systems.

Postpartum sexual behavior of the corn mouse (Calomys musculinus): Repertoire, measurements, and effects of removal of pups.

Postpartum sexual behavior of the corn mouse (Calomys musculinus): Repertoire, measurements, and effects of removal of pups.

Unique Aspects of Korean-American Mothers

A descriptive study was conducted to explore Korean beliefs and attitudes toward pregnancy, birth, and postpartum practices. In addition, overall characteristics of Korean mother-infant interactions are described. The sample consisted of 21 healthy Korean mothers and their term infants. The study revealed that Korean mothers in the United States continued Korean cultural practices related to pregnancy, birth, and postpartum behaviors. One alteration from traditional birth practices was related to infant feeding. Although many of the mothers believed that breastfeeding was better for the infants, the mothers chose to bottle-feed. Nurses need to use knowledge of the value systems of culturally different patients to plan relevant nursing care.

Short Report: Pre‐ and post partum behaviour in mules impregnated by embryo transfer

Short Report: Pre‐ and post partum behaviour in mules impregnated by embryo transfer

Parturient behaviour and calf survival in a herd selected for twinning

Observations and description of behaviour at parturition were recorded for 47 single- and 2 twin-bearing cows from a mixed-age herd of beef and dairy genotypes being selected for twinning. Information on birthweight, gestation length and survival to weaning of calves from 327 single- and 16 twin-bearing cows was recorded over a 3-year period. The animals were pasture-fed. Calvings were equally distributed throughout the day and night hours, although significantly more cows calved from 11.00 to 13.00 h than during any other period of daylight hours, which were 06.00 to 18.00 h. Three cases of mis-mothering were observed during the 3 years of observation. These were the result of calf-stealing by pre-parturient cows with a strong maternal drive. In single-bearing animals, heifers had a longer labour than adults and male calves were presented longer at the vulva than females. Twin calves required three times as long as single-born calves to begin sucking. There was a significant linear regression of calf survival on birthweight ( β = +1.0 ± 0.3%, P < 0.01), but there was no significant effect of the cows' pre- and post-partum behaviour traits on calf survival. Heifers gave birth to lighter calves than adults and single-born calves were heavier (32 kg) than twins (25 kg). After adjustment for differences in birthweight, calf survival was not significantly affected by litter size, age of dam, sire or year of observation. Twin-bearing cows had significantly shorter gestation lengths (276.8 ± 1.4 days) than those with single calves (283.0 ± 0.4 days), and there was a significant linear regression of gestation length on birthweight ( β = +0.44 ± 0.08 kg, P < 0.001). There is a need for further investigation of the factors affecting calf survival and dam—Neonate bonding and recognition in both single- and multiple-bearing cows. A method of identifying multiple pregnancy in cows would assist further behaviour studies.

Postpartum Behavior in the Mouse: The Contribution of Suckling Stimulation to Water Intake, Food Intake and Body Weight Regulation

Postpartum Behavior in the Mouse: The Contribution of Suckling Stimulation to Water Intake, Food Intake and Body Weight Regulation

Infant State and Behavior During the First Postpartum Hour

The objective of this study was to examine characteristics of infant behavior immediately after delivery which might constitute a behavioral fit with patterns of maternal postpartum behavior which have been described elsewhere. Nine newborns were observed during the 1st hour after delivery and again during the 2nd day of life. Classes of behavior observed were states, arm and hand movements, and smiles. The infants were significantly more alert during the 1st hour than during the comparison period on the 2nd day. There were no differences in the other behaviors observed. Implications for mother-infant interaction and maternal bonding are discussed.