Postflexion Stage Research Articles

Histological study of the gastrointestinal tract in longfin yellowtail (Seriola rivoliana) larvae.

This work contributes basic knowledge on larval development of Seriola rivoliana. A histological study describes the development of the digestive tract and accessory glands in S. rivoliana larvae reared under laboratory conditions at 24°C from hatching to 30days post-hatching (DPH). At hatching (2.6±0.12mm), larvae had an undifferentiated digestive tract with a closed straight tube and a large yolk sac with an oil globule. The liver and pancreas were observed at 1 and 2days, and the mouth and anus opened at day 2. Enriched rotifers were visible in their digestive tract. At the beginning of the pre-flexion stage, a mixed nutritional period was observed. At day 3, exogenous feeding began; the digestive tract became differentiated into the buccopharynx, esophagus, an undifferentiated stomach, and the intestines. Zymogen granules were visible in the exocrine pancreas. At day 4, supranuclear vacuoles were present in the posterior intestine, indicating the beginning of intracellular digestion. At day 5, goblet cells were present in the esophagus and became functional at day 7 in the esophagus and intestine. The buccopharynx goblet cells developed at day 15. The presence of gastric glands and differentiation of the stomach in the fundic, cardiac, and pyloric regions during the post-flexion stage occurred at day 20. This was the onset of the juvenile period and the beginning of weaning; however, a long co-feeding phase is recommended. Pyloric caeca were observed at day 30 (13.6±1.6mm). These results provide valuable information on S. rivoliana larvae biology and digestive physiology, which should be useful to improve cultivation techniques and identify ecological features involved in ontogeny.

Energy density of zooplankton and fish larvae in the southern Catalan Sea (NW Mediterranean)

In marine communities, energy of small planktonic organisms is transferred to their predators through feeding. The energy accumulated as organic substances by the different plankton organisms (Energetic Density content, ED) has been analysed in high latitudes and tropical areas, but not in the Mediterranean Sea. In this study, we approach this type of investigation for Mediterranean plankton through measures of total calorimetric content using an oxygen bomb calorimeter. We examined the spatiotemporal variation in the ED of microplankton (50–200μm) and mesozooplankton (200–2000μm), and two plankton-consumers, sardine (Sardina pilchardus) and anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) larvae. The study was carried out during the winter and summer of 2013 off the Ebro River Delta (NW Mediterranean Sea). Both plankton fractions showed a more coastal distribution and higher biomasses during winter, the period of sardine larvae occurrences, in front of a wider cross-shelf distribution and lower biomasses in summer, when anchovy appeared. ED values increased with the size of each plankton component, i.e., microzooplankton<mesozooplankton<fish larvae. A tendency for higher plankton ED in the winter period was observed, although being only significant for coastal zone, associated to the more productive waters there. Sardine and anchovy larvae showed an increasing trend in the amount of energy during development, with significantly lower ED between early larvae (6–10mm standard length) and late postflexion stages (16–20mm standard length). Small larvae of both species departed from a similarly low ED content, but in the next two size classes sardine larvae showed higher ED values than anchovy, being significantly higher in the 16–20mm size class. Information on larval feeding patterns and larval growth rates for each species were used to discuss differences in energy allocation strategies.

Larval development and allometric growth of the black‐faced blenny Tripterygion delaisi

Larval development and allometric growth patterns of the black-faced blenny Tripterygion delaisi are described from a larval series (body length, LB = 3·30-12·10 mm) caught by light traps at the Arrábida Marine Park, Portugal. Larvae of T. delaisi possess distinctive morphometric and meristic characteristics which can be used to identify this species from related taxa. Pigmentation is sparse but characteristic, consisting of pigmented eyes, gas bladder pigmentation in the dorsal region, anal pigmentation and a row of regularly spaced postanal ventral melanophores. This pattern is present from as early as the yolk-sac stage and persists throughout all stages with just the addition of head and caudal pigmentation during the flexion and postflexion stages, respectively. The majority of fin development (with the exception of the caudal fin), occurs in the later stages of development. Myomere counts range between 37 and 45 for all stages. Growth is allometric during larval development. When inflexion points of growth were detected, growth was found to be biphasic with the inflexion points occurring within a very narrow range of LB (8·70-8·90 mm) close to the mean ± s.d. (9·44 ± 1·48 mm LB ) of postflexion larvae. Considering allometric growth patterns and ontogenetic descriptions together, the first developmental phase includes the preflexion and flexion stage larvae, while the second phase characterises the postflexion larvae prior to the transition from larvae to juvenile.

Fish larval supply to and within a lagoonal estuary: multiple sources for Barnegat Bay, New Jersey

We evaluated spatial variation in fish larval supply to a temperate, lagoon type estuary (Barnegat Bay, New Jersey) by determining species composition, size, and stage into inlets (n = 2), thoroughfares between adjacent estuaries (n = 3), and within the estuary (n = 4) in seasonal, synoptic sampling on night time flood tides during 2010–2014. Larval supply, as sampled with identical plankton nets (1 m diameter, 1 mm mesh) was dominated by post-flexion stage individuals (most 5–10 but reaching 70+ mm) from species spawned in the Atlantic Ocean from a variety of sources (e.g., Sargasso Sea, outer and inner continental shelf) and in the bay. While abundance for individual species varied among locations and years, in general, the larval composition was similar across inlets, thoroughfares, and within the bay within the same seasons. Homogenization across locations was likely the result of the tidal exchanges between the ocean, the estuary, and the adjacent locations. These exchanges provide numerous, redundant sources of larvae to this estuarine nursery. The similarity in larval supply among inlets, thoroughfares, and within the estuary indicates that the longer term study location behind Little Egg Inlet is representative for this, and probably other, estuaries along the New Jersey shore.

Modelling the occurrence of postflexion stages of a marine estuarine-dependent fish in temperate South African estuaries

The movement of postflexion larvae of marine estuarine-dependent species into estuaries is critical for the survival of fishes reliant on estuaries as nurseries. However, detailed studies focused on environmental variability experienced by postflexion larvae entering a range of estuary types under varying conditions are rare. This study assessed the in situ conditions (temperature, salinity and water clarity) under which the southern African endemic fish Rhabdosargus holubi (Sparidae) recruits into estuaries. Postflexion larvae were sampled in three biogeographic regions (cool temperate, warm temperate and subtropical boundary), which included three estuary types (permanently open estuaries (POEs), temporarily open/closed estuaries and estuarine lake systems) on a seasonal basis, independent of each other. Rhabdosargus holubi larvae were more abundant in spring and summer, in POEs in the warm temperate region. Models predicted that higher larval occurrence in estuaries is a function of lower salinity (e.g. mesohaline zones of 5-17.9 salinity) and lower water clarity (e.g. 0-0.2 Kd, light extinction coefficient), particularly for warm, temperate POEs. This re-emphasizes the importance of freshwater for optimal nursery functioning, which may be compromised by impoundments, abstraction and climate change in water-short countries like South Africa.

Differentiated stable isotopes signatures between pre- and post-flexion larvae of Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) and of its associated tuna species of the Balearic Sea (NW Mediterranean)

The trophic ecology of bluefin tuna larvae (Thunnus thynnus) from the Balearic Sea, together with its co-existing tuna species such as albacore (T. alalunga), bullet (Auxis rochei) and little tunny (Euthynnus alletteratus) were examined by nitrogen and carbon stable isotope analyses. A total of 286 larvae were analyzed for this study, of which 72 larvae corresponded to bluefin, 57 to albacore, 81 to bullet tuna and 76 to little tunny. Tuna larvae were separated into the pre-flexion and post-flexion developmental stages. Within the size 3–9mm standard length (SL), the stable isotope of nitrogen (δ15N) showed significant differences between species where bluefin tuna larvae ranked highest. Pre-flexion bluefin tuna and little tunny larvae showed significantly higher δ15N signatures than the post-flexion larvae. This effect is attributed to a biochemical trace of maternal δ15N signatures. However, neither albacore nor bullet tuna larvae showed this pattern in δ15N signatures, possibly owing to a compensation effect between lower maternal δ15N values transmitted to pre-flexion larvae and the early increase of δ15N values in post-flexion stages. One way ANOVA showed significant differences between species in the stable isotope ratio of carbon (δ13C) values, which suggests specific differences of carbon sources. Furthermore, a similar significant ontogenic effect between δ13C signatures of pre-flexion and post-flexion larvae is also evidenced in all four species. At pre-flexion stages, all species except bullet tuna larvae showed significant negative relationships between δ15N and larval standard length. At post-flexion stages, a significant linear relationship with larval size was only observed in albacore and bullet tuna larvae indicating a possible trophic shift towards early piscivory. With respect to δ13C values with larval size, all four species showed significant linear decreases. It may be explained by the metabolism of growth of somatic mass subject to modification of the relative carbon isotopic sources. In conclusion, the species' signatures of δ15N and δ13C indicate differentiated early life trophic niches. In addition, it is worth remarking the potential use of transgenerational isotopic transmission in future research applications.

Spatial distribution and seasonality of ichthyoplankton and anthropogenic debris in a river delta in the Caribbean Sea.

Temporal changes in larval fish species composition and abundance compared with other components of the seston are described in four estuarine habitats in the Atrato Delta, Colombia. In comparison with zooplankton, fish larvae and egg density and anthropogenic debris abundance were low in the South Atrato Delta. Transparency, water temperature and chlorophyll a were the major factors influencing the spatiotemporal distribution of ichthyoplankton in the delta. The most abundant fish larvae were Astyanax sp. 1, Anchovia clupeoides, Cetengraulis edentulus, Anchoa sp., Bathygbius curacao, Dormitator maculatus, Hyporhamphus sp., Atherinella blackburni, Gobiosoma sp. 1 and Menticirrhus americanus (92·8% of total abundance). Spatial temporal analysis shows that in this delta, shrub (arracachal) and grass (eneal) habitats are important for freshwater and estuarine species, whilst mudflat and mangrove are important for estuarine species and estuarine-marine species, since most flexion and post-flexion stages of these species were found there. Anthropogenic debris density never surpassed the total ichthyoplankton density, but was ubiquitous. Shrub and mangrove habitats had higher densities of anthropogenic debris, since these are flood-stem habitats that trap solids.

Feeding behavior and capture success of turbotPsetta maximalarvae during the transition from upright to tilted swimming position

Aquaculture production of high-quality marine fish larvae might be hampered by poor success in larval initiation of exogenous feeding or the lack of appropriate live feed in their first feeding period. The period of larval metamorphosis may further constrain the successful rearing of flatfish larvae. In order to ascertain changes in feeding during metamorphosis of flatfish, we here compared feeding behavior when larvae of turbot Psetta maxima were either swimming upright or tilted. Using video recordings, we compared the attack rate and prey capture success between flexion (12–13 days-post-hatch, stage 4b–4c) swimming predominantly in upright position and post-flexion (16–17 days-post-hatch, stage 5a–5b) larvae in tilted swimming mode. Both larval groups were fed on copepod nauplii and copepodites. Our results showed a capture success of <50% during the flexion stage, increasing to 73% in the post-flexion stage, and larvae were more successful when feeding on nauplii than when offered copepodite stages. An ontogenetic shift from intermittent to cruise swimming was observed during the metamorphosis concomitant with improved hunting skills. Thus larvae appeared to be able to successfully complete metamorphosis without compromising their feeding ability on copepod prey.

Morphological development of larvae and juveniles of Prochilodus argenteus

ABSTRACT: Prochilodus argenteus is an endemic fish species from the São Francisco River basin that is of high economic and environmental importance. The present study aimed to contribute with information to the taxonomic identification of larvae and juveniles of this species. Larvae , obtained from induced spawning of wild animals, were reared in ponds. Individuals were collected daily and classified into larval stages or juvenile phase. Morphological descriptions and morphometric measurements were performed, together with a piece wise linear regression analysis of the body proportions throughout the development process. Individuals in the preflexion stage had a standard length (SL) of 4.48 to 6.64mm, long to moderate body (BH/SL), small to moderate head (HL/SL), and a small to moderate eye (ED/HL). In the flexion stage, the SL varied from 6.60 to 11.00mm, long to moderate body, moderate head, and small to moderate eye. Larvae in the postflexion stage presented SL of 10.54-19.93mm, moderate body, moderate to big head and small eye. The juvenile phase included specimens with a SL of 18.27 to 42.21mm which presented a moderate to high body, big head and small to moderate eye. Regression analysis showed significant moments of change in rate of increase of the body proportions, presenting a change in the growth pattern from allometry to isometry during the early development.

Allometric growth and development of organs in ballan wrasse (Labrus bergylta Ascanius, 1767) larvae in relation to different live prey diets and growth rates.

ABSTRACTSmall fish larvae grow allometrically, but little is known about how this growth pattern may be affected by different growth rates and early diet quality. The present study investigates how different growth rates, caused by start-feeding with copepods or rotifers the first 30 days post-hatch (dph), affect allometric growth and development of nine major organs in ballan wrasse (Labrus bergylta) larvae up to experimental end at 60 dph. Feeding with cultivated copepod nauplii led to both increased larval somatic growth and faster development and growth of organ systems than feeding with rotifers. Of the organs studied, the digestive and respiratory organs increased the most in size between 4 and 8 dph, having a daily specific growth rate (SGR) between 30 and 40% in larvae fed copepods compared with 20% or less for rotifer-fed larvae. Muscle growth was prioritised from flexion stage and onwards, with a daily SGR close to 30% between 21 and 33 dph regardless of treatment. All larvae demonstrated a positive linear correlation between larval standard length (SL) and increase in total tissue volume, and no difference in allometric growth pattern was found between the larval treatments. A change from positive allometric to isometric growth was observed at a SL close to 6.0 mm, a sign associated with the start of metamorphosis. This was also where the larvae reached postflexion stage, and was accompanied by a change in growth pattern for most of the major organ systems. The first sign of a developing hepatopancreas was, however, first observed in the largest larva (17.4 mm SL, 55 dph), indicating that the metamorphosis in ballan wrasse is a gradual process lasting from 6.0 to at least 15-17 mm SL.

Desove espontáneo, ontogenia y crecimiento en cautiverio de Cynoscion squamipinnis (Perciformes: Sciaenidae)

The croakers or drums are commercial species, which have been overfished in the Nicoya Gulf, Costa Rica. This study aimed to describe, for the first time, the reproduction and the ontogeny of weakfish, Cynoscion squamipinnis in captivity, in order to perform restocking and mariculture proyects. Wild fish (n= 6, 1-2 Kg) were captured and maintained in the Estación de Biología Marina Juan Bertoglia Richards (Puntarenas, Costa Rica) for a two years period (October 2006- December 2008). During this period, maturation stage was monitored periodically by cannula samples in the females (n= 3) and gentle massage in males (n= 3). All fish were stocked in an 18 t tank, with aeration, 33-35 ups of salinity, and a constant temperature (29 ± 1 °C). The spawning period occurred from January to March 2009, producing 162 000 eggs in three spontaneous spawns. The fertilization percentage was 50-60%, and survival after hatching was 60-85%. The egg diameter was 0.852 mm (Standard deviation (SD)= 0.039), and oil drop of 0.269 mm (SD= 0.016). In the embryonary development, the first mitotic division (MD) was observed one hour after spawning (has), the second MD was 1:30 has, the third MD was 2:00 has, the fourth MD was 2:30 has, and fifth MD at 3:00 has. Morule was observed 3:30 has, the blastule 4:30 has, the gastrule 8:30 has, C shape at 10:00 has, and C shape at 12:00 has. After 19 has hatching larvae occurred. The total length (TL) of the larvae was 2.234 mm (SD= 0.122), and the nothochordial length (NL) was 2.179 mm (SD= 0.119). Preflexion stage was observed 49 has, flexion stage was 11 days after spawn (das) (3.767 mm LT (SD= 0.209)), and postflexion stage was 14 das (4.015 mm LT (SD= 0.302)). After 45 das, the juvenile weights 3.68 g (SD= 1.09). Hatch time of the weakfish larvae was minor than of others croaker species. The stages times of embrionary development were a little different from others croaker species, and probably respond to genetic characteristics of each species and the eggs incubation temperature. The spontaneously spawning without broodstock hormonal applications, and the juveniles production in captivity showed that weakfish is a potential species for restocking programs and mariculture projects.

Differential patterns of divergence in ocean drifters: Implications for larval flatfish advection and recruitment

In an effort to better understand the physics of the eastern Bering Sea shelf current as it relates to flatfish advection to favorable near-shore areas, sets of multiple, satellite-tracked, oceanic drifters were released in 2010, 2012 and 2013. The release sites and dates were chosen to coincide with known spawning locations for northern rock sole (Lepidopsetta polyxystra) and known time of larval emergence. The drifters were drogued 5-each at 20 and 40m in 2010 and 2012, and 4 at 40m and 2 at 20m in 2013. The locations of drifters were used to calculate divergence over a 90-day period that corresponds to the larval pelagic duration of Bering Sea shelf northern rock sole. Results indicate that there are alternating periods of positive and negative divergence with an overall trend toward drifter separation after 90days, roughly the end of the rock sole planktonic larval period. Examination of the drifter behavior at the hourly scale indicates that semi-daily tidal forcing is the primary mechanism of drifter divergence and convergence. Field observations of early-stage northern rock sole larval distributions over the same period indicate that predominant oceanographic advection is northerly over the continental shelf among preflexion stages, though juveniles are predominantly found in nursery areas located ~400km eastward and inshore. Evidence from drifter deployments suggests that behavioral movements during the postflexion and early juvenile larval phases that optimize eastward periodicity of tidal cycles is a viable mechanism to enhance eastward movement of northern rock sole larvae to favorable nursery grounds. A regional ocean modeling system (ROMS) was implemented to track the different rates of dispersion in simulations both with and without tidal forcing, and was used to estimate effective horizontal eddy diffusion in the case of both isobaric (fixed-depth) and Lagrangian (neutrally buoyant) particles. The addition of tidal forcing had a pronounced effect on horizontal eddy diffusion, increasing its value by a factor of five in the case of fixed-depth floats, as compared with a factor of two in the case of neutrally buoyant floats. Further, the incorporation of diurnal vertical behavior in phase with favorable (on shelf) tides transported the “larvae”~400km within 40days of their release date. Empirical drifter data coupled with model evidence suggest that semi-diurnal tidal forcing is the primary mechanism of eastward advection over the Bering Sea shelf, and larval observational data suggest that northern rock sole larvae can maximize their eastward transport to nursery grounds by synchronizing their vertical movements to tidal periodicity during the postflexion stage.

Feeding selectivity in early life stages of Rhamdia voulezi under experimental conditions

The feeding selectivity of laboratory-reared larvae of Rhamdia voulezi was assessed to investigate the preferred preys in early life stages. Three experiments were conducted at different larval development stages, starting soon after the absorption of the yolk sac (on fourth day after hatching – DAH), using zooplankton from fish ponds as food. Differences were detected in the patterns of prey selection among development stages. At first, the larvae prefer small preys, such as rotifers and cladocerans. Later, when they are more developed, they prefer to feed on large preys, such as copepods. On the fourth DAH, larvae in the pre-flexion and initial flexion stage strongly selected rotifers and cladocerans (Diaphanosoma spinulosum, D. brevireme, Moina sp., M. micrura and M. minuta). At the other stages, cladocerans continued to be strongly selected. However, on the eighth DAH, larvae in flexion stage selected less strongly copepods Argyrodiaptomus azevedoi, Metacyclops mendocinus and Termocyclops decipiens. On the tenth DAH, larvae in postflexion stage selected more strongly copepods Argyrodiaptomus furcatus, Notodiaptomus cf. spinuliferus and M. mendocinus. As larvae grow, they tend to specialize in feeding of a particular prey. Prey selection of R. voulezi larvae was based both on species and zooplankton size. The size of the zooplankton ingested was related to the mouth gape size of larvae.

Spatial distribution and diet of larval snailfishes (Liparis fabricii, Liparis gibbus, Liparis tunicatus) in the Canadian Beaufort Sea

Summary This paper presents information on diet and distribution of larval snailfishes from the genus Liparis on the Canadian Beaufort Sea Shelf. In this study, 153 larval snailfishes of three species, Liparis fabricii, L. gibbus and L. tunicatus, were collected during 4 summer cruises (2003–2005, 2007). The majority of the larvae were either in flexion or post-flexion stage, and some were in pre-flexion stage. Liparis larvae appeared to be generalists in terms of diet and fed on a wide range of planktonic organisms. Pre-flexion larvae fed on small copepods (mainly adult stages of Triconia borealis). As larvae grew their diet shifted towards larger copepods (copepodids III/IV of Calanus hyperboreus, copepodids II–IV of Calanus glacialis and females of Metridia longa) and amphipods (Themisto libellula). Remarkably, larvaceans Oikopleura spp. and pelagic snails Limacina helicina made up a substantial part of the larval diet. This paper contributes to the knowledge on arctic larval fishes and to the ongoing efforts regarding Canadian Beaufort Sea ecosystem modeling.

Early development of two tropical fishes (Perciformes: Sciaenidae) from the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, Brazil

&lt;p&gt;Las primeras fases del ciclo de vida no son conocidas lo suficiente para la mayoría de los peces de la región Neotropical. Así la descripción de larvas y juveniles de &lt;em&gt;Pachyurus bonariensis&lt;/em&gt; y &lt;em&gt;Plagioscion ternetzi&lt;/em&gt;, dos especies de corvinas que se encuentran en el Pantanal matogrossense, Brasil, fue realizada a través de cambios ontogénicos en la morfología externa, en la pigmentación y en el desarrollo de las aletas, al igual que en la morfometría y merística. El material fue recolectado en la bahía de Chacororé, río Cuiabá, entre marzo de 2000 y marzo 2004. Se analizaron 80 individuos de cada especie, siendo 60 larvas y 20 juveniles. Las larvas de &lt;em&gt;P. bonariensis&lt;/em&gt; presentaron boca en posición terminal pasando a sub-terminal, ojos grandes, bien pigmentados y esféricos, tornándose pequeños y elípticos en post-flexión, espinas en el pre-opérculo (dos internas y cuatro externas); número total de miómeros variando entre 23 y 27, pigmentación inicialmente escasa intensificándose, principalmente, en la región ventral; secuencia de formación y número total de espinas y radios de las aletas: caudal, dorsal (XI+29-32), anal (II+6), pélvica (I+5) y pectoral (15-17). Por otro lado, las larvas de &lt;em&gt;P. ternetzi&lt;/em&gt; presentan una boca terminal: ojos grandes, bien pigmentado y esféricos, disminuyendo a medida que se desarrolla, espinas en el pre-opérculo (tres internas y cuatro externas); número total de miómeros variando entre 23 y 26; pigmentación inicialmente escasa, volviéndose evidente solo al final de la post-flexión, con la presencia de algunos cromatóforos en la región superior de la cabeza; secuencia de formación y número total de espinas y radios de las aletas: caudal, dorsal (XI+30-36), anal (II+6), pélvica (I+5) y pectoral (16-18). En la relación de las variables morfométricas, sólo la longitud de la aleta anal-hocico diferían entre las dos especies, siendo inicialmente mayor en &lt;em&gt;P. ternetzi&lt;/em&gt;, mientras que sólo se hizo más grande en los jóvenes de &lt;em&gt;P. bonariensis&lt;/em&gt; después de 34 mm. A pesar de la dificultad de identificación intraespecífica entre larvas de peces recolectadas en ambientes naturales, las herramientas morfológicas y morfométricas utilizadas en el presente estudio fueron eficaces para la separación de las primeras etapas de desarrollo de las dos especies morfológicamente similares que comparten el mismo ambiente para la reproducción.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

Early development and allometric growth patterns of the grumatã (Prochilodus vimboides Kner, 1859).

The objective of this study was to characterize the early development and allometric growth of the grumatã (Prochilodus vimboides). We describe a sample of 266 eggs and larvae obtained through induced spawning. The eggs were spherical (mean 3.7 mm diameter), exhibited a yellow yolk and were non-adhesive and pelagic after fertilization and hydration. The time elapsed between the early cleavage and post-flexion stages was considered short (328 hours, 8054 hour-degrees) in regard to the development times of other Neotropical rheophilic species, but time to hatching was considerably longer than in other Prochilodus species. The most notable anatomical changes were observed between the end of the yolk larval stage and the beginning of the pre-flexion stage, when the larvae displayed directed swimming and the digestive system became functional, enabling the transition from endogenous to exogenous feeding. After hatching, the larvae grew from 6.04 to 15.15 mm in total length average. Two growth phases were observed at this stage: a non-linear asymptotic curve in yolk-sac larvae, and a linear constant-rate growth phase after exogenous feeding started. Allometric growth related to standard length was positive for head length, negative for eye diameter, and switched between phases from negative to positive in body depth and head height. Morphological development and allometric growth in different larval phases impose drastic anatomical and physiological changes that are synchronic with habitat changes and the flood cycles during the reproductive period.

Early development in the mouth-brooding cichlid fish Satanoperca pappaterra (Perciformes: Cichlidae).

The Neotropical region exhibits the largest diversity of fish worldwide; however, little is known about the early development of fish species from this region. Therefore, to contribute to this knowledge, this study aimed to morphologically describe the early stages of development (eggs, larvae and juveniles) of S. pappaterra using morphometric and meristic traits, and to assess changes in growth rates throughout larval and juvenile development by analyzing the relationships between various morphometric traits using analytical regression models. Both juvenile and adult individuals with mouth-brooded offspring were collected along the basins of the Cuiaba and Manso Rivers in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil between March 2000 and March 2004. After the adults were identified, the offspring were classified according to its stage (embryonic, larval or juvenile period), and various morphometric and meristic variables were individually measured (when possible). The eggs of this species are yellow in color, oval shaped, show dendritic pigmentation within their yolk, have small to moderately sized perivitelline spaces and lack a mucous membrane and oil droplets. The horizontal and vertical diameters of the sample yolks ranged from 1.43mm to 2.70mm and 1.05mm to 1.68 mm, respectively. The standard length of the larval period varied from 4.30mm to 7.16mm, and the standard length of the juvenile period varied from 10.29mm to 24.57mm. Larvae exhibit yolk sacs with internal dendritic pigmentation and dark punctate pigmentation in the dorsal and ventral body regions, whereas irregular transverse spots along the flanks are observed during the juvenile period. Adhesive organs are only present during the yolk-sac stage and at the beginning of the flexion stage. The mouth is terminal during all stages of development. The myomere number varied from 22 to 29 (9 to 16 pre-anal and 10 to 16 post-anal), and the maximal numbers of fin rays and spines were as follows: dorsal, XVI+10; anal, IV+8; pectoral, 16; and pelvic, I+8. Growth analyses identified periods of important change in larval morphology (i.e., metamorphosis), particularly during the flexion and post-flexion stages and in juveniles. Therefore, the morphological development of S. pappaterra is consistent with the ecological requirements of this species, which primarily occurs in structured lentic environments with aquatic macrophytes.

Descriptions of eggs of snailfishes (family Liparidae) from the Bering Sea and eastern North Pacific Ocean

Eggs of liparid fishes were collected by bottom trawl in the southeastern Bering Sea and removed from an oceanographic mooring cable off the coast of British Columbia, Canada. Eggs were large with embryos most commonly in late flexion to postflexion stages. Based on meristic counts and collection localities, eggs were identified as Elassodiscus tremebundus, Paraliparis rosaceus, and Careproctus sp. (either Careproctus colletti or Careproctus melanurus). Eggs of E. tremebundus are oval with a smooth, opaque chorion. Eggs of P. rosaceus are spherical and the chorion is sculptured with a uniformly pebbled texture. Eggs of Careproctus sp. are slightly oval and the chorion is smooth and opaque. Embryos of all species are unpigmented. A pelvic disk is present in embryos of E. tremebundus, but it is rudimentary: a small patch of tissue that was visible only after embryos were cleared and stained. Adults of the genus Paraliparis do not have a pelvic disk and no disk was observed in developing embryos. Embryos of Careproctus sp. have a large disk with rays visible in later stages. Hatching glands are present on the head and nape of embryos of all three species. Hatching glands of E. tremebundus are separated into bands across the snout, along the jaws and opercle, and in a patch on the nape, while those of P. rosaceus and Careproctus sp. are evenly distributed over the head and nape. This is the first full description of the embryonic stages of these taxa.

Stage-Specific Ontogeny of Digestive Enzymes in the Cultured Common Dentex (Dentex dentex) Larvae

Stage-specific ontogeny of main digestive enzymes in common dentex, Dentex dentex, were assayed during early life development according to notochord flexion studied from hatching to 45 days after hatching (DAH). The notochord was straight in yolk-sac larvae of D. dentex and preflexion stage was observed between 0 and 18 DAH as 2.75 and 6.27 mm at total length (TL). Then, flexion of the notochord was estimated between 19 and 30 DAH as 6.27 and 10.9 mm at TL. Important alterations in specific activities of all digestive enzymes measured during period of this study were mostly related with metamorphosis and co-feeding. Trypsin and chymotrypsin specific activities were firstly detected on day 3 and were related with mouth opening, whereas they slightly increased until 25 DAH respectively. Pepsin was firstly detected on day 28 and related with stomach formation and a sharp increase was observed until 30 DAH. Both amylase and lipase were measured on day 2 and 4, respectively and they also sharply increased during the first week of life. Additionally, except pepsin, most of the digestive enzyme activities were firstly secreted in the preflexion stage and also gastric secretion started and functional development digestive system were occurred in in flexion and postflexion stages, respectively.

Larval condition of Merluccius hubbsi (Marini, 1933) in the northern Patagonian spawning ground

Argentinean hake, Merluccius hubbsi, is one of the most important fishery resources of the South-western Atlantic Ocean, but its spawning biomass decreased in the last fifteen years, mainly due to the increased fishing pressure. It is widely accepted that to understand recruitment variability is necessary to study the factors that determine survival of early stages of development. Nutritional condition indexes have been widely used to determine starvation in wild larvae. In the present investigation, condition of M. hubbsi larvae was estimated employing field collected material by means of RNA/DNA index. This is the first attempt to use this index in this species. The change in the RNA/DNA index showed a clear ontogenetic pattern: increasing from preflexion to postflexion stages, showing an apparent decrease at the end of postflexion stage and a conspicuous increase once transformation stage was achieved. This pattern could be indicating that the transition between postflexion and transformation stages might represent a critical phase along larval development. RNA/DNA index also showed significant differences between areas from the spawning grounds characterized by different chlorophyll a concentration and abundance of potential prey. The study of nutritional condition represents a useful tool for identifying favorable nursery areas, providing valuable information for a comprehensive management of a population subject to overfishing.