post-Soviet Research Articles

Образ науки и учёного в журнале «Наука и жизнь» (1940 - середина 1960-х гг.)

In this article authors reconstruct the image of Russian science and scientists, broadcasted on the pages of the journal “Science and Life” in the 1940 - mid 1960s. The characteristic features of the Russian/Soviet scientist are examined through the prism of anniversary. The main source of research is the popular scientific journal “Science and Life”, which also acts as the object of research. The subject field is the popularization of Soviet science. The structure of the article presents 4 parts: the historiography of the problem; the thematic focus of the journal in the dynamics of social order and editorial policy; the broadcast image of science and the scientist; conclusions. The authors used the method of content- analysis and the developments of intellectual history, with close attention to the context. A frontal review of the material allowed us to conclude that during these years the predominant attention was paid to the problems of natural science (74 %), the share of technical sciences accounted for 11 % of publications, humanities - 8 %. 7 % of all articles were publications devoted to the commemorative practices of the Soviet scientific community. The factors of this orientation of the publication are revealed. Popularization policy of the journal is examined in the context of the general change in the image of science in the middle of the 19th century, the scientific policy of the Soviet state in the 1940s-1960s and the positions of the scientific community. The authors came to the conclusion that despite the constant changes in the scientific policy of the state, the editorial board of the journal focused its readers on the importance of fundamental research and the connection between Soviet science and Soviet scientists, both with pre-revolutionary and world science. The image of Soviet scientists reflected both the ideals of the “new Soviet man” and the general scientific values associated with creative activity.

СИСТЕМА ПАРТИЙНО-ПОЛИТИЧЕСКОЙ РАБОТЫ В КРАСНОЙ АРМИИ В ПЕРИОД ГРАЖДАНСКОЙ ВОЙНЫ (1918 – 1920 гг.). СТАТЬЯ ПЕРВАЯ

It has been convincingly proven in the Russian and Soviet historiography, that in the fire of the fratricidal Civil War in Russia (1918 - 1920), a unique military-historical phenomenon arose and strengthened in the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army: party-political work carried out by the power structures of the Soviet state and the ruling Communist Party. Analyzing this phenomenon, the authors examine its system, which was distinguished by a complex organization, which included many subsystems and various parameters, united by the conceptual basis of Bolshevism and the unity of forms and methods of organizational, party and ideological work.

Становление советского законодательства в сфере высшего образования в период с 1917 по 1930 г.

Regulatory and legal reform of higher education has always been a way to solve political and ideological problems, some of which are still relevant. The principles of higher education laid down from 1917 to 1930 are still relevant today. The importance of studying the formation of the higher education system at the beginning of the formation of the Soviet state is caused by the need for a better understanding of modern processes in education policy. Purpose. The purpose of the study is to identify the main stages and principles of higher education reform at the beginning of the Soviet period. Methodology. The following methods are used in the research: historical-legal method, historicism method, sociological method, hermeneutics method. Changes in law occur under the influence of political and ideological processes in a certain historical period. When using the sociological method, law examines a social phenomenon that is formed under the influence of social relations. The hermeneutics method is used to interpret legal acts. Results. The process of formation of higher education management bodies is analyzed. The basic principles of building an educational system are derived based on the study of legal acts regulating the area under study. Conclusion. Approaches to the formation of a professional training system changed during the period taken for study, which shows a fairly prompt response by the state to identified problems. Of course, not all decisions were effective, which is natural, especially during the formation of a new approach to educational policy.

Борьба с беспризорностью несовершеннолетних в Енисейской губернии в контексте деятельности Комиссии по улучшению жизни детей. 1921 г.

Early years of the Soviet regime were a period of implementation of the ideological doctrine that stated that children welfare should be the exclusive remit of the State. The study of the entire range of solutions for the so called children’s problem in early Soviet state requires involvement of multiple kinds of sources. The object of our interest was the report of Robert Krishyanovich Lepsis (1896–1942), a representative of Yenisseyskii Provincial Executive Committee on the Improvement of Children’s Lives, about the condition of childcare facilities by July 1921. The report was prepared for the Commission for the Improvement of Children’s Lives under the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. The document included into the publication was identified as part of Fund P-93 “Department of National Education of the Yenisseyskii Provincial Executive Committee” in State Archive of Krasnoyarsk Territory. The document is reliable and informative; it provides details of geographical location and regional aspects of formation and activities of Soviet machinery during its establishment. The document also gives an idea of searching for humane mechanisms to eliminate juvenile homelessness. We failed to find papers that would highlight organization and initial steps of the Commission for the Improvement of Children’s Lives in Yenisseyskaya Province. The published document the data on the condition and supply of orphanages and shelters in Yenisseyskaya Province; it evaluates the activities of the representatives for the improvement of children’s lives and mechanisms of solution for the problem of juvenile homelessness. The author of the report does not hide the fact that the problems of homeless and neglected children are not a priority in the activities of all the Soviet institutions or administrative organizations. However, due to his being at the same time a Chairman of the Provincial Extraordinary Commission, he manages to solve some urgent issues of childcare facilities. We applied diachronic method to analyze information from the source. As a result we came to a conclusion that they did not manage to change the situation with children’s homelessness in Yenisseyskaya Province radically by July 1921. But a process of introduction of newly formed Soviet institutions into the solution of the above mentioned problem started. Due to the lack of financial and material resources, as well as poor staffing, orphanages and shelters were in poverty. They did not properly solve the educational tasks assigned to them, but at least they served as feeding stations where one could survive in the midst of destruction and famine. The information from the source may be of interest to those who study Soviet society, forms and practical activities of addressing the problems of children’s homelessness.

Функции советского персонального пенсионного обеспечения в довоенный период (1923-1941 гг.)

Introduction. Pension provision is multifunctional. Currently, scientists are actively exploring the functionality of pension provision, however, the original functions of the Soviet personal pension provision remained outside the field of their interests. Purpose. The author aims to determine the specific (original) functions characteristic of personal pension provision in the pre-war period (1923-1941) being based on the analysis of legislative acts regulating the establishment of personal pension provision and personal files of personal pensioners of republican significance. Methodology. In his research, the author was guided by the principles of consistency, historicism and scientific objectivity, as well as the method of interpretation of legal norms and the technical and legal method. Results. In addition to the functions common to all types of pension provision, five specific functions of personal pensions have been identified: granting immunity from national legislative restrictions; reimbursement of royalties to the heirs of outstanding figures of culture and art; partial compensation to descendants and relatives of the value of valuables transferred by them to the state (archives, collections, personal belongings) and real estate (houses, apartments, estates) previously owned by prominent figures of culture, science, art and the revolutionary movement; payment provided to specialists for exclusive skills, knowledge transferred to the state or for services rendered; solutions to complex issues pension provision within the pension system. Conclusion. The original functions of personal pension provision allowed the Soviet state to solve numerous tasks related to the organization of museums of Russian classics, attracting highly qualified specialists to its side, providing material support to honored citizens who formally have no rights to pensions for professional activities.

Yezhov’s infiltration model and the Russian Federation’s seizure of Crimea

The author analysed the scale of betrayal among the officers and officials of the Ukrainian state during the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation in 2014. The main research problem was an attempt to explain the anomaly in the activities of the special services in the form of recruiting 1,400 officers of the Ukrainian SBU to the Russian FSB. In an attempt to explain this phenomenon in the practice of secret services, the author used the theory of offensive intelligence and counter-intelligence created and developed in the USSR from the early 1920s, as well as the findings of cognitive psychology regarding the phenomenon of projection as the main mechanism for explaining the behavior of other people. Thanks to the synthesis of psychology and the analysis of the theoretical achievements of the Soviet secret services, the author put forward a hypothesis about the mass recruitment of the SBU officers in the Crimea long before the annexation. According to the author, the main mechanisms of mass recruitment of agents in order to control the opponent’s organisation were broadly understood corruption and cronyism characteristic to the post-Soviet area.

Model infiltracji Jeżowa a zajęcie Krymu przez Federację Rosyjską

The author analysed the scale of betrayal among the officers and officials of the Ukrainian state during the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation in 2014. The main research problem was an attempt to explain the anomaly in the activities of the special services in the form of recruiting 1,400 officers of the Ukrainian SBU to the Russian FSB. In an attempt to explain this phenomenon in the practice of secret services, the author used the theory of offensive intelligence and counter-intelligence created and developed in the USSR from the early 1920s, as well as the findings of cognitive psychology regarding the phenomenon of projection as the main mechanism for explaining the behavior of other people. Thanks to the synthesis of psychology and the analysis of the theoretical achievements of the Soviet secret services, the author put forward a hypothesis about the mass recruitment of the SBU officers in the Crimea long before the annexation. According to the author, the main mechanisms of mass recruitment of agents in order to control the opponent’s organisation were broadly understood corruption and cronyism characteristic to the post-Soviet area.

A Comparative Study on Political Trust in Transition Countries

This paper investigates the origin of political trust in post-communist Central European and Soviet Union countries. By comparing two competing theories that explain political trust, institutionalism, and socialization theory, the paper tried to explore which theory shows a higher explanatory power in the transitional context. The research employs ordinary least squares (OLS) methodology, using country and time as dummies to control for unobserved heterogeneity. The main independent variable is constructed based on the ‘cohort effect,’ representing years of experience of communist rule. The study explores the role of socialization, institutionalism, and labor market experiences as determinants of political trust. Findings indicate that socialization under communism resisted democracy and market economy adoption, but economic and political situations played a more significant role in shaping political trust. Additionally, being employed in the state sector or self-employed during the transition period positively influenced political trust levels. This research sheds light on the intricate factors influencing political trust in the aftermath of significant institutional transformations in post-communist countries.

The Impact of russia’s Military Aggression on the Formation of Macroeconomic Indicators of Post-Soviet Countries and Support for Ukraine

The economic consequences of the war in Ukraine are felt all over the world. Russian aggression has put pressure on global commodity prices, exacerbated disruptions in supply chains, and fueled inflation in most countries around the world. The countries that have decided to support russia today, or are trying to avoid confrontation with them, should be clearly aware that in the eyes of Ukrainians and the whole world they are silent accomplices in crimes and genocide against the Ukrainian people. The purpose of the article is to analyze how the countries of the former USSR reacted to the russian aggression against Ukraine, the statements of politicians and the decisions of the governments of the countries that, together with Ukraine, were part of the USSR until 1991; to determine how Westernization affects macroeconomic indicators and the formation of European values in the countries of the post-Soviet space. The article defines aspects of the formation of macroeconomic factors in the countries of the post-Soviet space. It was determined that despite the right of the union republics to state sovereignty formally enshrined in the Constitution, the USSR was actually a unitary state. It was created as a highly centralized, totalitarian and authoritarian system, incompatible with the principles of democracy, free and full development of nations. The study analyzes when the whole world expresses support and help to Ukrainians, at the same time, some post-Soviet countries, in particular, the leader of Kyrgyzstan, expressed support to the Russian president. Another ally in russia's war against Ukraine is Tajikistan. The main components of the economic factor of Westernization are considered: GDP per capita, capital investments and the size of the minimum wage. To calculate the extent to which groups of post-Soviet states are related in the studied macroeconomic indicators, we calculated the coefficient of variation based on the standard deviation.

Islamic Revival in Kazakhstan from the Historical Perspective (1991-2020)

In recent years, researchers have increasingly posed the question of the role of Islam in shaping an individual's personality, their spiritual worldview, and socio-cultural identity in the post-Soviet space. This study aims to analyze the process of Islam's resurgence in the Republic of Kazakhstan, particularly in the context of its independence. The study employs a methodological framework grounded in the historical method of comparison. The findings underscore that Islam has evolved into an integral component of contemporary global civilization. In the era of globalization, it has undergone transformations across various levels of public life, serving as a unifying force for diverse reformist ideologies within the Islamic world. The study's conclusion highlights the contemporary period in the Republic of Kazakhstan as characterized by a national revival. This revival encompasses the revitalization of national culture and religion, with a strong emphasis on the development of national culture rooted in traditional spiritual values. Additionally, it recognizes the significant role of religion in shaping national identity. However, it is essential to acknowledge the ongoing tension between historically entrenched aspects of Islam and modern trends. This tension underscores the Islamic resurgence as a unifying force driving reformist ideas within the Islamic world. In summary, the Republic of Kazakhstan's modern era is marked by a profound national revival that encompasses cultural revitalization and a renewed recognition of religion's role in shaping national identity. This revival exists alongside the ongoing interplay between historical Islamic elements and contemporary influences.

FDI, FDI’s Impact on Economic Growth and the Investment Environment in Georgia

Georgia, with its open policy towards foreign investment flows, was one of the first countries in the Post-Soviet space. From the day of gaining independence, FDI has become the most important indicator of the country, and the assessment of the volume of foreign investment flows carried out in the country, statically or dynamically, has not lost its relevance to this day. Present article explores the volume of foreign direct investments made in Georgia, in dynamic; From the total indicators, in terms of geography, the largest investor countries are identified; In the period 2013-2022, the structure of FDI is expanded according to components and the percentage distribution of share capital, reinvestments and debt obligations from the total indicators is highlighted; The impact of FDI on economic growth indicators has been determined using correlation-regression analysis. The article also provides global figures for foreign direct investment, including countries receiving the largest FDI flows; In order to assess the investment environment, in dynamics, the sovereign credit ratings of Georgia evaluated by the leading rating companies are presented. Statistical observation, collection-grouping and analysis techniques and methods are used in the research process.

Comparative Aanalysis of National Security Strategies of Armenia in the Context of Political Realism, Liberalism, and Marxism

The article examines the characteristic features of Armenian national security strategies, actively conducting research of an interdisciplinary nature with extensive use of systems analysis. Issues of stability of the political system of Armenia in the interests of national security are considered not only from the point of view of the general theory of systems, but also using the methodological principles of synergetics. An independent section of research was the study of regional conflicts in the post-Soviet space and their impact on the state of national security of Armenia. In this context, traditional international relations theory offers tools for analyzing the previous actions of states within a broader framework and deciding on further actions. The present article seeks to provide simple textual comparisons and analyses of the Republic of Armenia’s National Security Strategies of 2007 and 2020. Those elements within the Strategies which have remained, changed, or been added will then be made the subject of contextual analyses with the theoretical traditions of liberalism, realism, and Marxism to draw out the Republic of Armenia’s major priorities and assess the capability of its approaches to meeting the foreign policy problems that exist. Each theory of international relations will emphasize those positions in the National Security Strategies that most accurately reflect Armenia’s past and current positions, and evaluate them in accordance with global and regional standards.

HOW THE RUSSIA-UKRAINE WAR CHANGED THE MODERN WORLD

The author analyzes the geopolitical, economic, energy, military, historical, informational, and other important factors, which played a role in the Russian military aggression against Ukraine.
 Particularly, the author presents a comprehensive overview of the reasons behind the implementation of the intervention in Ukraine and the violation of the main principles of morality and international law by Russia. Furthermore, the author shows how Russia is losing geopolitical influence in the world and particularly in the post-soviet space, which the Kremlin considers as a zone of geopolitical and geostrategic interests of Russia after the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
 The author also examines the economic consequences of the war, including how the military operation has damaged the Russian economy, and how this has negatively affected the Russian government’s budget. One of the results of it is the decreasing volume of Russian oil and gas exports, especially in the European market. In this context, some aspects of how the war affects the global economy are also discussed and analyzed.
 Regarding military aspects, the statistical data related to Russian losses in the war, including military personnel and military techniques also are considered in the framework of the research.
 In the research, attention is paid to the importance of analyzing some historic factors, related to the imperialistic policy of the Russian empire, the Soviet Union, and the Russian Federation accordingly from the 19th century till now. Particularly, the focus is on kinds of violations that have been implemented by their rulers against different states and nations, including mass deportations and genocides of the civilian population.
 In conclusion, the author presents possible scenarios for developments related to the Russia-Ukraine war.

DEVELOPMENT TRENDS OF THE GLOBAL HOTEL MARKET AND THE PLACE OF UKRAINE IN IT

Objective. The objective of the present article is to study trends in the development of the hotel services market in the world and Ukraine. Methods. The following methods were used: analogy, analysis, synthesis, deduction, logical generalization; statistical method (for the systematization of statistical materials regarding the number of hotels, their size, number of beds, determination of the number of overnight stays and average room occupancy, assessment of the impact of tourist flow on the dynamics of the development of the hotel industry); multidimensional factor analysis (to identify external and internal factors affecting the development trends of the hotel market in Ukraine and the world). Results. A comparative analysis of the dynamics of the development of regional hotel markets in the world was carried out and the fate of the Ukrainian market in the world was determined. The following indicators were analyzed: the total number of hotels and rooms; level of distribution of hotel chains; share of coverage of the world hotel market by hotel chains; value of hotel brands; dynamics of investment in the hotel market by continent. As a result of the analysis, it was established that the main players in the market of hotel services in the world are the USA, the EU, and China. These countries formed centers around themselves that extended their influence to other regions. Hotel chains were the main tool of competitive confrontation. Their share in the total share of the world hotel market increased. They covered more than 50% of the market, and in some countries it reached 90%. US hotel chains covered 40% of the world market of hotel services, were represented on all continents of the world and actively competed with Chinese ones. At the same time, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic did not lead to a reduction in the number of hotels among the chains. Fixing a decrease in the total number of accommodation facilities in the world (independent and chain), the number of chain hotels increased from 119,000 to 157,000 during the studied period, and the number of rooms from 12 million units to 13 million, respectively. The impact of the pandemic on the overall dynamics of the development of the global hotel market showed a decrease in the number of hotels and rooms in the Americas, Asia and Oceania. On the contrary, the share of EU countries has increased. The growth of Ukraine's share in the European market is also recorded. However, these increases were not due to an increase in the number of hotels, but to a lower rate of their reduction due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was established that the dynamics of investment activity is gradually reaching pre-pandemic financing volumes. The leading position continues to be retained by the USA with a level of 60% of the global volume of investments in the industry. The countries of Europe, Asia and Oceania keep this indicator at the level of 30%. It has been proven that in the conditions of competition between the USA, China, and the EU, Ukrainian hotel chains could expand only towards the post-Soviet space (the countries of Central Asia and the Caucasus) - as a free territory.

ДЕСЕКУЛЯРИЗАЦИЯ ИСЛАМА «СВЕРХУ» В КАБАРДИНО-БАЛКАРИИ: 1940-Е ГГ. – НАЧАЛО XXI В.

The study is about Kabardino-Balkaria’s state policy toward Islam from the Great Patriotic War until the beginning of the twenty-first century. Desecularization “from above” is used as the main conceptual approach of the study. This approach is viewed as a state-controlled, rather than a grassroots movement led, rebirth of religion from private to public space. It is noted that the growing Islamic mobilization, being also under the influence of external political technologies, required the Soviet and Russian state to create a “top-down” desecularization strategy in order to avoid the emergence of autonomous centers of violence and separatism. Ultimately, despite changes in the political regime since the middle of the 20th century not only had the state kept re-ligious processes within certain limits, sometimes using authoritarian methods, but also integrated existing potential into a productive political agenda, be it ensuring internal security and stability or foreign policy strategies.

Анализ сценариев организации теплоснабжения горных территорий на основе комплексных решений по их устойчивому развитию

Introduction. In the modern world, planning for the sustainable development of countries at the state level should take into account the economic-geographical position (abbr. – EGP) of the territories, which determines the nature of the organization of their heat supply, which is of particular relevance for mountainous areas. Materials and methods. The starting point of the study was an analysis of the structure of the sustainable development goals (abbr. SDGs), among which five SDGs were selected, interconnected with each other and with the EGP (SDGs 7, 3, 9, 11, 13). To compile the materials, statistics on the countries of the post-Soviet space of the World Energy portal were used. Two main types of energy economy of countries were identified, meeting the needs for heat supply, which are largely determined by the EPG of the territories. Results. It is shown that the organization of heat supply to territories needs to be improved in the context of SDG 7 “Affordable and clean energy”, so the question arises about strategic planning of its scenarios. Based on the results of the study, five scenarios were proposed for selection aimed at the sustainable development of territories: centralized heat supply, the use of traditional decentralized sources, the transition to the use of electricity, the development of renewable energy sources and the transition to nuclear energy. Discussion. In the mountainous areas of the countries studied, the use of one of the proposed scenarios is not possible; a combined scenario for organizing heat supply is required. The authors propose to use an approach based on the method of hierarchy analysis, on the basis of which provisions are formulated for its application in order to plan the sustainable development of mountain areas. Conclusion. Based on the results of the work, conclusions were drawn that reflect the stages of the research, which are based on a scientific and practical approach to the formation and selection of scenarios for organizing heat supply to mountainous areas. Areas of promising practice-oriented research include studying the possibilities of using renewable energy sources (including solar and wind power plants), which are currently little used in heat supply to mountainous areas.

Industrial potential of the Kazakh SSR during the Great Patriotic War (1941–1945)

The aim of the article is to analyze the activities of various industries of the Kazakh SSR during the Great Patriotic War, aimed at providing raw materials to enterprises of the military-industrial complex and their own production aimed at improving the defense capabilities of the Soviet state. The relevance of the study was determined by the need to identify trends in the development of industry in the Kazakh Republic during the Patriotic War. The source base of the work was the works of Soviet, Russian and Kazakh authors, information from the Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan dedicated to the history of the Great Patriotic War. The peculiarities of technological production aimed at increasing labour efficiency in the coal, non-ferrous, oil, chemical and energy industries of the republic are given. The growth trends of the indicators of these industries are revealed. The main ones are: increase of raw materials extraction at Karaganda coal basin, construction of auxiliary industrial enterprises, such as brick, cement works, explosive materials plant, woodworking plant, etc. In non-ferrous metallurgy, growth of non-ferrous metal output during the war years increased manifold compared to the pre-war periods. In oil industry – growth of high-quality oil production in Western Kazakhstan. In the chemical industry – increase of the list of products through construction of new shops and workshops of the operating enterprises of the chemical industry of the republic. In the energy sphere – construction of new power stations from regional to industrial levels. It is concluded that the identified trends in industrial development in Kazakhstan during the Great Patriotic War were a definite contribution to the improvement of the defensive capability of the USSR and in its victory over Germany.

Main Problems and Outcomes of the Activities of the Organization for Democracy and Economic Development – ODED in 1997–2022

Introduction. The article analyzes the main directions and trends of the development of ODED as an international organization from its formation in 1997 to the present events of 2022. The author summarizes the activities of this structure over more than 20 years of its existence. Results and Discussion. The author concludes that despite periodic bursts of activity, the overall activities of this organization have been largely declaratory in nature and have not led to any significant practical results. Although the Organization for Democracy and Economic Development – ODED, which includes Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, and Azerbaijan, has repeatedly raised the issue of including the union in global transportation routes for energy supplies, no major projects have been implemented. According to the author, the main reason for this has been the politicized nature of the organization, which was initially created primarily to counter Russia’s integration aspirations in the post-Soviet space with the support of Western actors such as the EU, NATO, and the United States. Conclusion. In reality, the ODED member countries have different goals on the international stage and have virtually no common economic interests. As a result, today ODED primarily serves as a negotiating platform for a small range of issues.

Национальная безопасность России в контексте международной безопасности

The end of the 20th century was marked by a significant restructuring of the world order. It led to irreversible changes in the military-political situation. In turn, this had a direct impact on the nature of the challenges and threats faced by the national security of the Russian Federation. Not only did the polycentric world structure existing within the system of international relations fail to destroy the main disagreements, it contributed to the emergence of new ones. These contradictions inevitably influence both the state of Russian national security and all international security. The object of research is the national security of Russia. The purpose of the study is to develop a mechanism that is relevant in our time, guaranteeing the national security of Russia within the framework of general international security. The principles of scientificity, objectivity and historicism, and theoretical elements of political science are taken as the foundation of the study. General scientific methods were used: deduction and induction, analysis and synthesis, observation, study of documentation, etc.; political science methods: retrospective, comparative, modeling. Situational, structural-functional and scenario analyzes were used. It has been established that the reconstruction of the paradigm of relations with the West and a change in behavior in the field of foreign policy will allow Russia to fully realize the potential of a promising and preventive policy to create a loyal foreign policy atmosphere. A positive result of this in the future will be the expansion of the immediate area of the zone of geopolitical interest of the Russian Federation, in particular its post-Soviet space, it will allow solving a number of problems with domestic politics, bringing the country out of partial isolation, and minimizing the threat of a collision with the NATO bloc directly in the form of a proxy war.

The evolution of ideas about pacifism in the global Pentecostal tradition

The article presents opinions in global Pentecostalism about pacifism and nonviolence. In most European countries and the United States, the topic of pacifism became relevant during the World Wars. Over time, pacifism as a dominant was replaced by the possibility of independent choice of believers in accordance with their convictions of conscience. The Global Pentecostal movement has developed different strategies of action in relation to participation in military operations: from categorical refusal to total acceptance of the need for military service. Those strategies were influenced by changes in the views of religious leaders, and the power position on statements from individual churches. In the Soviet Union, Pentecostals already in the 1920s held loyalist views on the military issue. The Soviet state forced Pentecostals to declare the need to fulfill civic obligations, including with arms in hand. Soviet Pentecostals officially proclaimed the principle of personal responsibility for one’s choices and the need to comply with state laws. In the late Soviet period, for most believers, military service was a way to test the "perseverance of faith" and at the same time demonstrate law-abidingness and inclusion in the life of Soviet society.