Poor Households Research Articles

Do social cash transfers bridge the wellbeing gender gap in developing countries? The case of Ghana’s LEAP programme

ABSTRACT Gender inequality remains a significant problem in Ghana with many women socially and economically disadvantaged. Social protection interventions, in particular cash transfer programmes, have the potential to increase wellbeing and reduce gender gaps in poor households. This article analyses the wellbeing differences between men and women beneficiaries of Ghana's Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) programme. Using a multiple regression moderation interaction model, we analyse six wellbeing dimensions (financial, health, education, food, housing and social) of 322 LEAP cash transfer beneficiaries in Ghana's KEEA district. We found that female-headed households achieve better wellbeing than male-headed households when LEAP income is paid at regular intervals. Regular LEAP payments also reduce gender gaps in wellbeing. These findings contribute to the design of policies seeking to bridge the wellbeing gap between men and women.

Energy shocks as Keynesian supply shocks: Implications for fiscal policy

This paper analyses the economic impact of and the optimal policy response to energy supply shocks in a flexible price model with heterogeneous households. We introduce energy as a consumption good on the demand side and as an input to production on the supply side. A distinguishing feature is that, in line with empirical evidence, we allow households’ energy demand to be non-homothetic. The model provides three main insights. First, (negative) energy supply shocks act as a (negative) demand shock, or Keynesian supply shock, when two conditions are met: On the demand side household income inequality needs to be large, while on the supply side, the price elasticity of consumption goods needs to be high. Second, the social planner can implement the first-best allocation by subsidising firms and poor households while taxing rich households. Energy shocks then act as standard supply shocks. Last, issuing public debt can help implement the first best allocation when energy shocks are large and/or the economy’s overall energy intensity is low.

Evaluating the effects of digital finance on urban poverty

This study examines the impact of digital financial services development on urban poverty. Utilizing the vicious cycle of poverty theory, we established a multidimensional poverty measurement index to assess the poverty status of urban households and propose strategies for leveraging digital finance to address urban poverty. Through empirical research based on a comprehensive dataset from China covering the period from 2012 to 2020, we evaluated the moderating effect of digital financial growth on urban poverty. Our analysis, which categorized poor urban households into five groups—laid-off workers, unemployed individuals, migrants, the elderly, and disabled persons—revealed that only the unemployed and migrants experience significant benefits from digital financial development. Lastly, we explore the underlying mechanisms and emphasize the role of investment, financing, and entrepreneurship in utilizing digital finance for poverty alleviation.

Healthcare access and deprivation in low-income urban households

The financial situation of households is related to their access to healthcare and their level of deprivation. This study analysed the factors that influence access to healthcare among low-income households in Gauteng, South Africa. A quantitative cross-sectional design was adopted using the binary logistic regression technique, drawing on the Gauteng City-Region Observatory Quality of Life 2020/2021 data, consisting of 9700 observations randomly drawn from eight municipalities. Based on marginal effects, the study findings revealed that seven factors significantly influenced access to healthcare. That is, healthcare source, nonuse of public facilities, proximity to a healthcare facility, satisfaction with healthcare services, medical aid, health status, health work, social health activities, and chronic illness. More effort is needed to harness Gauteng’s economic progress towards alleviating poverty and increasing opportunities to lift low-income households out of the poverty trap. Investment in an advanced public health care system, public–private sector coordination, improved health budget allocation, and doctor-patient ratio will reduce the out-of-pocket costs of poor households.

The impact of Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana on Indian households

This study critically evaluates the impact of the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) on LPG accessibility among poor households in India. Using Propensity Score Matching and Difference-in-Differences estimators and the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) dataset, the Average Treatment Effect on the intendedly Treated is a modest 2.1 percentage point increase in LPG consumption due to PMUY, with a parallel decrease in firewood consumption. Regional analysis reveals differential impacts, with significant progress in the North, West, and South but less pronounced effects in the East and North East. The study also underscores variance across social groups, with Scheduled Caste households showing the most substantial benefits, while Scheduled Tribes households are hardly affected. Despite the PMUY’s initial success in facilitating LPG access, sustaining its usage remains challenging. Policy should emphasise targeted interventions and address regional and community-specific disparities for the sustained usage of LPG.

Modern contraceptive utilization among women of reproductive age in Ghana: a multilevel mixed-effect logistic regression model

BackgroundWorldwide, sexual and reproductive health remains a prominent public health concern for women of reproductive age. Modern contraceptive methods play a crucial role in enabling individuals and families to regulate fertility, thereby reducing unintended pregnancies, abortions, pregnancy-related complications, and mortality. Due to the scarcity of reliable and current data regarding the factors affecting the adoption of modern contraceptives among women of reproductive age at the national level in Ghana, this research aimed to explore the determinants of modern contraceptive usage among reproductive age women.MethodsThe study analyzed data from the 2022 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, including a weighted sample of 6,839 reproductive-age women. By employing a multilevel logistic regression model, the study sought to determine factors associated with the utilization of modern contraceptives. Associations between explanatory variables and the outcome were evaluated using adjusted odds ratios (AORs) along with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Statistical significance was established using a p-value threshold of less than 0.05. All statistical analyses were conducted using STATA version 17 software.ResultsThe study found that 26.36% (95% CI: 25.33-27.34%) of women of reproductive age in Ghana used modern contraceptives. Secondary education (AOR = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.03–1.53), poorer household (AOR = 1.30, 95% CI = 1.05–1.61), women’s marital status, i.e. married (AOR = 1.46, 95% CI = 1.16–1.83), living with a partner (AOR = 1.65, 95% CI = 1.32–2.06), divorced (AOR = 2.53, 95% CI = 1.48–4.31), and separated (AOR = 1.70, 95% CI = 1.21–2.37), multipara (AOR = 1.39, 95% CI = 1.04–1.87), were the factors that promote modern contraceptive utilization. Women’s age in years, i.e. 35–39 (AOR = 0.71, 95% CI = 0.52–0.97), 40–44 (AOR = 0.63, 95% CI = 0.44–0.90), and 45–49 (AOR = 0.45, 95% CI = 0.25–0.79), history of pregnancy loss (AOR = 0.86, 95% CI = 0.76–0.98), region, i.e. Greater Accra (95% CI = 0.42–0.92), Bono East (95% CI = 0.32–0.81), Northern (95% CI = 0.28–0.67), Savannah (95% CI = 0.28–0.81), and North East (95% CI = 0.20–0.63), were all associated with a lower use of modern contraceptives.ConclusionsModern contraceptive utilization was low in this study. Factors such as women’s education, socioeconomic status, and marital status were associated with increased modern contraceptive utilization, whereas women’s age and regional disparities were linked to lower usage rates. These findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions to address socioeconomic barriers and regional disparities in access to family planning services across Ghana.

Impact of urban productive safety net program on urban households' asset accumulation and food consumption rate in Dessie City, South Wollo Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia.

Agriculture is the driver of economic growth in many developing countries like Ethiopia, where it often represents at least 25% of gross domestic product. But the quality and productivity of the land depends on the way agriculture is practiced. Better agricultural techniques are necessarily including Productive Safety net Program. Urban Productive Safety Net Program is designed to support the poor households and establish urban safety net mechanisms. While several studies have examined the effects of rural productive safety net programs, the outcomes of similar programs in urban areas are not well documented. This knowledge gap hinders the ability to effectively design and implement urban productive safety net programs. The main objective of this study was to assess the impact of urban productive safety net program on asset accumulation and consumption rate in Dessie city. Both primary and secondary data sources were used. A total of 112 households were selected randomly among the public work Urban Productive Safety Net Program beneficiary and non-beneficiary households. Descriptive analysis, inferential statistics and econometric models were used for analysis. Based on the econometric estimation results the demographic and socio-economic variables such as education, access to credit, access to extension services and adult male labor force revealed positive relation to public work urban productive safety net program beneficiary and non-beneficiary household's asset accumulation and consumption. The impact of program participation was also found to be positive and significant for both home asset and community asset. While food and non-food consumption even the total consumption and food security status are also positive. Generally, the result indicated that, due to program participation beneficiary households have higher home asset and community asset and better consumption and food security status.

Examining the Relationship Between Mobile Cellular Subscriptions and Inclusive Growth: SADC Members

Abstract Inclusive growth had faced global challenges in social and gender disparities issues, especially in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, which affects its administrations and distributions in modern development contexts. Recognised international institutions have used the term inclusive growth as a description of growth that is formed through labor force and distributions focusing on well-being. This study examines the relationship between mobile cellular subscriptions and inclusive growth to improve the standard of living using a panel autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach from 2000 to 2020. The economic growth context studies applied were unable to capture the demand for improving welfare and expectations to lessen poverty, while promoting inclusivity for SADC. Moreover, SADC economic growth partially dealt with the inclusive growth challenges of network connectivity, poor household benefit sharing, and a fast-growing population by applying non-validated methods that were useful to measure economic growth but fail to respond to inclusive growth. The World Bank (WB) and International Telecommunication Union (ITU) databases were used to identify that there is a positive and statistically significant relationship between mobile cellular subscriptions and inclusive growth in the long run. The findings of this study contribute by clarifying and urging policymakers and researchers concerned about equitable economic development to incorporate this sufficient to the relevant upbringing of communication channels to embrace inclusive growth opportunities to expand inclusive growth rapport and channels.

More childcare for the poor? Budgetary impacts and female labour supply responses in Italy, Austria and Hungary

ABSTRACT This paper examines the economic implications of achieving three different childcare targets (45%, 50%, and 55%) on children from disadvantaged families in Italy, Austria and Hungary. Using a discrete choice structural labour supply model that considers childcare options, we evaluate the impact of increasing childcare slots for children under 3 in poor households, defined as those in the bottom half of the income distribution. Reaching the revised Barcelona targets of 45% formal childcare participation for children under 3 would notably boost mothers’ workforce engagement in all three countries, particularly in Austria. Moreover, the initial costs of creating additional childcare slots are nearly balanced out by the rise in income tax and social security contributions resulting from increased female labour market participation.

Open defecation among Kenyan households: an analysis of demographic and health survey 2022 and census report of 2019

BackgroundOpen defecation (OD) is the disposal of human excreta in the fields, bushes, water bodies and other open spaces. It poses a public health risk as it can lead to the spread of diarrhoea, cholera, soil-transmitted helminths and trachoma. Kenya aims to achieve 100% open defecation free status by 2030 in line with Sustainable development goal number 6. This study sought to determine factors influencing OD at the household level as well as quantify the number of households practicing OD in each of the 47 Kenyan counties.MethodsData from the household questionnaire of the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey, 2022 was analysed. Bivariate logistic regression was done with open defecation status as the dependent variable. Independent variables were poverty status, place of residence, ownership of farm animals, gender and educational level of household head. The number of households practicing OD per county were determined using the Kenya Census report of 2019.ResultsPoverty was the strongest predictor of a household practicing OD (OR 43.8 95% CI 26.1–73.8) followed by educational status of the household head (OR 3.3 95% CI 2.3–4.6 ) and the household not owning livestock ( OR 0.7 95% CI 0.6–0.9). An estimated 7.4% of households practice OD. These are estimated to be 814,223 households. Out of these, 686,051 households (84.3%) are found in the 15 counties ranked as having a high population practicing OD. Five counties have managed to eliminate OD and another nine have OD rates of less than 0.5%.ConclusionKenya has made commendable progress in eliminating OD. Poverty is a significant predictor of OD at the household level. To eliminate OD, it is advised that more efforts be targeted towards poor households as well as the 15 counties having a high number of OD-practicing households.

“In the dry season, our suffering doubles”: Barriers to water access in poor urban settlements in Ghana

If current trends of water insecurity continue, nearly two-thirds of the world’s population will live in water-scarce conditions by 2025. Nevertheless, qualitative studies on barriers to water access, particularly in informal settlements, remain limited. This study used in-depth interviews to examine the daily barriers to water access faced by urban poor households in Ghana. A total of 30 (n = 30) semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with residents in water-insecure areas in Tamale and Accra, Ghana. Four themes emerged from our analysis: lack of financial resources, distance and travel time, land and topography, and poor water infrastructure. Sustainable Development Goal Six cannot be achieved if the water needs of the urban poor, particularly those who dwell in informal settlements, are unmet. Thus, governments and systems must implement measures to eliminate inequalities and inequities in water distribution.

Agricultural and rural development interventions and poverty reduction: Global evidence from 16 impact assessment studies

Agricultural and rural development interventions can reduce global poverty by providing growth-oriented tools, including access to finance, training, and markets. While such interventions effectively reduce monetary poverty (e.g., $1 a day poverty line), there is increasing interest in incorporating non-monetary poverty indicators, such as education, health, and living standards, to capture inherent multidimensionality in poverty. This study analyzes data from 16 impact evaluation studies conducted between 2019 and 2023 to examine whether and to what extent agricultural and rural development interventions affect multidimensional poverty of small-scale producers. Our analysis shows a 4 percent reduction in multidimensional poverty for treatment households compared to comparison households. Our findings suggest that agricultural and rural development interventions play a positive role in reducing poverty and have the potential to improve the long-term well-being of poor households.

Assessment of livestock husbandry practices and production constraints among smallholder mixed crop-livestock production systems in the Majang zone, southwest Ethiopia

Livestock production plays a significant role in improving the livelihoods of poor smallholder farmer households in the Majang zone. However, despite its importance, there is limited information on husbandry practices and constraints on livestock production to design and implement effective interventions to maximize productivity. The aim of this study was to assess husbandry practices and major constraints on livestock production in the Majang zone, southwest Ethiopia. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data from a randomly selected sample of 168 households (HHs) through a face-to-face interview from January to May 2021. The results revealed that mixed crop-livestock farming is the dominant livestock production system in the study area. The overall average herd size per household (HH) was 2.15 ± 0.11 cattle, 0.15 ± 0.01 sheep, 0.31 ± 0.09 goats, 0.10 ± 0.02 donkey, 0.04 ± 0.00 mule, 0.13 ± 0.02 horses and 0.24 ± 0.02 chickens. Overall herd size did not differ significantly by AEZ except for sheep (p < 0.05). The primary reason for keeping cattle, goats, sheep, equines and poultry were milk production (27.4 %), meat for home consumption (33.9 %), cash income (33.3 %), transportation (85.1 %), and meat for home consumption (72 %), respectively. In the dry and wet seasons, natural pasture, crop residues, indigenous fodder trees and shrubs (IFTSs), nonconventional feed resources (NCFRs), crop stubbles and improved forages were the main livestock feed resources. The majority (60.1 %) of respondents practiced free-grazing systems. Separate sheds, family dwellings, kraals, and open-walled sheds were the main housing systems used for animals. The majority (79.2 %) of respondents used rivers as a source of livestock drinking water. Trypanosomiasis (18.45 %), African horse sickness (66.1 %) and Newcastle disease (47.02 %) were the most important diseases of livestock. Diseases (35.7 %), lack of access to artificial insemination (35.7 %) and inadequate veterinary services (11.3 %) were identified as the top three constraints limiting production. It is recommended that constraints identified by farmers should be considered in developing and implementing effective interventions to improve livestock productivity and their contribution to poverty alleviation in the study area.

Magnitude and determinants of the catastrophic out-of-pocket healthcare expenditure in rural and urban areas: lessons from Tanzania panel data survey

Out-of-pocket (OOP) healthcare costs can impose a strain, their consequences are regressive, they may result into disaster and bankruptcy. These health expenses that surpass a certain percentage of total households income compelling the household to bear the cost of the illness is considered as catastrophic health expenditure (CHE). Using the national panel data collected in 2008/09, 2010/11 and 2012/13 waves in Tanzania, the study sampled a total of 1476 households with at least one member who had an experience of visiting a healthcare provider 4 weeks before the survey and she or he covered costs for treatment from own pocket. The logistic model was used to analyse the determinants of CHE in both rural and urban areas. The two most commonly thresholds were used, such as 10% and 40% of the overall income and non-food revenue, respectively. OOP healthcare costs are strongly and positively linked to catastrophic costs as well as household poverty. For both thresholds, income, household size, and age of the household's head above 60 years significantly influenced CHE at a 5% level. We support the literature pointed out that OOP healthcare expenses inflict financial catastrophe to the poor households and they even expose them to more hardship.

Prevalence and determinants of skilled birth attendance among young women aged 15–24 years in Northern Nigeria: evidence from multiple indicator cluster survey 2011 to 2021

BackgroundChildbirth among adolescents and young mothers has been linked to various complications, including perinatal mortality, preterm births, low birth weight, and infections, which collectively contribute to the high burden of neonatal and maternal mortality. Despite some progress, the prevalence of skilled birth attendance, proven to improve maternal and newborn health outcomes, remains consistently low in Northern Nigeria. This study assessed the prevalence and determinants of Skilled Birth Attendance (SBA) among young women ages 15–24 years in Northern Nigeria.MethodsThis pooled cross-sectional study included 6,461 young women aged 15–24 years from 2011, 2016 and 2021 multiple indicator cluster surveys in Nigeria. We used a binary logistic regression model to assess the factors associated with skilled birth attendance at 95% confidence intervals (CIs) with computed adjusted odds ratios (aORs).ResultsThe prevalence of skilled birth attendance among young women in Northern Nigeria increased from 25.6% in 2011 to 33.1% in 2021. Women who were atleast 18 years of age at first marriage had 2.48 higher odds of SBA (aOR 2.48, 95% CI = 1.54–4.00) compared those less than 18 years of age at first marriage after controlling for confounders. Young women from rich household wealth quintile were more likely to utilize SBA (aOR 1.84, 95% CI = 1.11–3.14) compared to young women from poor household wealth quintile. In terms of education, those women who had secondary (aOR = 2.52, 95% CI = 1.77–3.56) and higher education (aOR = 10.01, 95% CI = 2.21–49.31) had higher odds of SBA compared to those with no education. Individual women with media exposure had 59% higher likelihood (aOR = 1.59, 95% CI = 1.16–2.19), women who attended 4 or more antenatal care visits during their last pregnancy demonstrated 2.28 times higher odds (aOR = 2.28, 95% CI = 1.67–3.09), while those who reported no intention for their last pregnancy were 37% less likely (aOR = 0.63, 95% CI = 0.42–0.96) to utilize SBA.ConclusionA slight increase in the prevalence of skilled birth attendance was observed over the 10-year period. For a significant boost in skilled birth attendance among young women in Northern Nigeria, particular attention needs to be paid to girls’ child education, delay in marriage, economic empowerment of young women, and strategic ways of leveraging trained community health workers (CHIPs) to bring reproductive healthcare close to young women living in rural areas.

Welfare impacts of drought adaptation strategies in John Taolo Gaetsewe district, Northern Cape Province, South Africa

Drought is a global problem that presents a negative impact on the welfare of millions of people in both industrialized and developing nations. In South Africa, poor rural households, who depend on rain-fed subsistence agriculture for their livelihoods are the most susceptible to drought, and have the least ability to absorb its impacts. The primary goal of this study was to analyse the effects of drought adaptation strategies on rural households’ welfare and to compute the welfare enhancement impacts that are associated with each adaptation method. The study was conducted in John Taolo Gaetsewe district, Northern Cape province. Multistage sampling technique was used to sample 360 rural households, who were affected by drought. The results showed that the average age of households’ heads was 52 years. Only 41% of the households’ heads had an education level between Grades 8 and 12, and about 63% were male. Average farming experience was 7.67 years and pensioners made up about 47%. Also, 65% of households’ heads depended on government assistance, while 85% lacked access to formal credit. The 2SLS results showed that household income, household size, pension, grant, and use of crop diversification significantly influenced per capita consumption expenditure. The results showed that average treatment effect (ATE) from crop diversification was R497.16 and statistically significant (p&lt;0.05). It was concluded that many drought adaptation methods are not influencing households’ welfare, and efforts to promote adaptation should focus on crop diversification with specific assistance given to social grant holders. Res. Agric. Livest. Fish. Vol. 11, No. 2, August 2024: 185-196

Trade and socioeconomic importance of an invasive giant snail in the endemic-rich island of São Tomé, Central Africa.

Managing invasive species is crucial to mitigate their negative impacts on ecosystems, yet conflicts may arise when their social benefits are disregarded. Human pressure on the endemic-rich forests of São Tomé has been high since the island was discovered by the Portuguese in the 15th century, and numerous species have been introduced. These include the invasive West African giant land snail (Archachatina marginata), which was introduced in the mid-20th century, is now widespread on the island, and is a potential threat to native flora and fauna. We assessed the frequency of consumption of this species and its socioeconomic importance to people across the island with household questionnaires, focus group discussions, and semistructured interviews. We explored the prevalence and potential drivers of use (e.g., wealth, household composition, and diversity of occupations) and characterized the commodity chain to identify demographic groups linked to the snail trade. We interviewed 672 people (1 person per household), conducted 6 focus groups, and interviewed 80 key actors belonging to 5 subcategories. The snail was the most widely consumed bushmeat and an important source of income, particularly for women and unemployed youth. Insecure and scarce livelihood alternatives, mostly in rural areas, were reported as drivers for trade involvement. Snail harvesting was more frequent in poorer households with low occupational diversity. Selling tended to occur in households that were well-established in the community and had a higher proportion of children. Both were stimulated by the proximity of communities to the native forest. Buying snails was common in all demographic groups, but it was linked to wealth and occupational diversity. Interventions to manage the impact of this introduced species on the valuable ecosystems of the island should involve multiple sectors of society to ensure societal support. This requires robust consideration of the welfare of vulnerable demographic groups that benefit from the species.

IMPLEMENTASI DIMENSI DAN TIPE “POLICY NETWORK” DALAM PENANGGULANGAN KEMISKINAN DI KABUPATEN LOMBOK TIMUR

In the study it’s described implementation of poverty alleviation by using new approach namely dimention and type of “policy network. The study method used is mixed method, integration of quantitative and qualitative. The result of study showed that poor household shoud be identified by Integrated Data Base (IDB) which focus on 40 percent of household group which have lowest welfare rate by using Decil (D) approach namely D1 to D4. Meanwhile, acceleration of poverty alleviation its connected with 7 dimentions of policy network namely actors, function, stucture, institutionalisation, power relations, rule of conduct, and actor strategies and each dimention is heterogen.

Child health outcomes and associated factors among under five years children in Ethiopia: a population attributable fractions analysis of Ethiopia demographic and health survey (2005–2016)

IntroductionIn Ethiopia, more than half (57%) of children aged 6–59 months were estimated to be anemic in 2016 alone. The country had about 37% of under-five children suffering from stunting and under-five mortality rate of 59 deaths per 1000 live births in 2019. The main purpose of this paper was to estimate the proportion of under-five children prevented from childhood undernutrition, anemia, and under-five mortality by removing the risk factors or inequalities.MethodThis cross-sectional study was based on a pooled total sample of 29,831 children aged 0–59 months drawn from three rounds of the Ethiopian Demography and Health Surveys (2005–2016). We employed multiple logistic regression analysis to identify the modifiable risk factors associated with childhood anemia, undernutrition, and under-five mortality among under-five children. We also used Population Attributable Fractions (PAFs) to estimate the proportion of under-five children that could be prevented from childhood undernutrition, anemia, and under-five mortality by removing inequalities.ResultPAF analyses of risk factors of childhood anemia confirmed that 38.5% of occurrence of childhood anemia was attributed to five selected risk factors, which include having a large household size (5+), being in a poor household, being born from anemic and unemployed mothers, and being breastfed for less than six months. About 45.6% of occurrences of childhood undernutrition were attributed to unimproved toilet facility, solid cooking fuel, and home delivery. About 72% of the reported under-five mortality could possibly be averted by removing the use of unimproved toilet facilities, early age childbirth (< 18 years old mothers), and a large number of children ever born to mothers and less than six months breastfeeding practice at the population level.ConclusionThe present study suggests that a substantial reduction in the prevalence of childhood anemia, undernutrition, and under-five mortality in the country is attainable if child survival-focused program interventions and policies target households and mothers with low socioeconomic status and those who have low awareness of child healthcare, including breastfeeding practice and use of safe sanitation facilities.

Trends and inequalities in antenatal care coverage in Benin (2006–2017): an application of World Health Organization’s Health Equity Assessment Toolkit

IntroductionBetween 2006 and 2017, antenatal care (ANC) coverage in Benin declined, potentially exacerbating inequalities and substantiating the need for health inequality monitoring. This study examines inequalities in ANC attendance in Benin, disaggregated by women’s age, educational level, economic status, place of residence, region of residence, and the extent to which they have changed over time.MethodsThree rounds of the Benin Demographic and Health Surveys (2006, 2011–12, and 2017–18) were analyzed to examine inequalities in ANC coverage. An exploratory descriptive approach was adopted for the analysis. Simple [difference (D) and ratio (R)] and complex [population attributable risk (PAR) and population attributable fraction (PAF)] measures of inequalities were computed using the World Health Organization’s Health Equity Assessment Toolkit (WHO’s HEAT) online platform. The measures were computed separately for each of the three surveys, and their estimates were compared.ResultsThe findings revealed an 8.4% decline in at least four ANC visits between 2006 and 2017–18. The decline occurred irrespective of age, educational status, economic status, place of residence, and region. Region-related inequalities were the largest and increased slightly between 2006 (D = 54.6; R = 2.6; PAF = 47.8, PAR = 29.0) and 2017–18 (D = 55.8; R = 3.1; PAF = 57.2, PAR = 29.8). Education (2006: D = 31.3, R = 1.6, PAF = 40.5, PAR = 24.5; 2017–18: D = 25.2, R = 1.6, PAF = 34.9, PAR = 18.1) and rural-urban (2006: D = 16.8, R = 1.3, PAF = 17.8, PAR = 10.8; 2017–18: D = 11.2, R = 1.2, PAF = 13.1, PAR = 6.8) inequalities reduced while economic status inequalities did not improve (2006: D = 48, R = 2.2, PAF = 44.5, PAR = 26.9; 2017–18: D = 43.9, R = 2.4, PAF = 45.0, PAR = 23.4). Age inequalities were very minimal.ConclusionANC inequalities remain deeply ingrained in Benin. Addressing their varying levels requires comprehensive strategies that encompass both supply—and demand-side interventions, focusing on reaching uneducated women in the poorest households and those residing in rural areas and Atacora.