Pond Sand Filter Research Articles

Evaluating arsenic contamination in northwestern Bangladesh: A GIS-Based assessment of groundwater vulnerability and human health impacts

One of the biggest environmental worries in the world today is the risk of arsenic (As) contamination in groundwater. The Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) was used in this work to assess the As content in groundwater samples from 38 shallow (27 m) tubewells in northwest Bangladesh to determine the existing situation, potential source(s), and likely health risk of As and other important water quality parameters. The range of arsenic concentrations (μgL−1) was troublesome and greater than the WHO recommended level for drinking water, ranging from 0.50 to 164 (mean ± SD: 20.22 ± 36.46). In groundwater, the concentrations of Fe, and Mn vary from 0.04 to 52.75 mgL−1 (mean ± SD: 4.23 ± 9.68), and 0.23 to 3.27 mgL−1 (mean ± SD: 1.10 ± 0.67). The obtained groundwater samples have pH values ranging from 5.9 to 7.1, which indicates a somewhat acidic to neutral character. Major cations have an average abundance that is as follows: Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ > K+, while major anions have an average abundance that is as follows: HCO3− > Cl− > SO42− > NO3−; Ca2+ and HCO3− are the main cation and anion, respectively. The groundwater in the Rajarampur village was deemed unfit for drinking or irrigation based on analyses of water quality performed using the entropy water quality index. The Ca–HCO3 type of water, in which Ca2+ and HCO3− are the main positive ions and negative ions, is suggested by the Piper tri-linear diagram. It was discovered that silicate weathering regulates the hydro-geochemical activities in groundwater using a bi-variate examination of several hydro-chemical variables. Four major clusters were observed for the water sample. According to reductive dissolution processes and principal component analysis, the arsenic in groundwater is geogenic in origin. Arsenic is discharged from sediment to groundwater by reductive dissolution of FeOOH and MnOOH, as shown by the modest connection between As, Fe, and Mn. The United Nations Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) suggested value for probable cancer risk assessment was 10−6, however the probable cancer risk assessment found a higher value, indicating that the population in the study region was at high risk for cancer. Remedial measures for arsenic mitigation include removing arsenic from groundwater after it is extracted, searching for alternative aquifers, and implementing various water-supply technologies such as dugwells, deep tubewells, pond-sand filters, and rainwater harvesting systems.

Changing water sources and extraction methods in Bangladesh: Challenges, consequences, and sustainable solutions

The quest for safe water in Bangladesh has resulted in the shift of water sources and extraction methods throughout history. The study aims to investigate the factors driving these changes, assess the consequences of current water consumption trends, and propose solutions for sustainable water management. The research highlights the historical shift from surface water to tube-wells for accessing groundwater, driven by their affordability and user-friendly nature. However, the discovery of arsenic contamination in tube-well water raised serious public health concerns, leading to the exploration of alternative water sources and extraction techniques. Various methods such as dug wells, pond sand filters, piped water supply, rainwater harvesting, and well-sharing have been adopted by communities and indigenous groups to ensure access to safe and clean water. The study reveals disparities in the installation of deep tube-wells by the government and NGOs, often overlooking safer water sources available at shallower depths. Furthermore, the study discusses the consequences of high-yielding technologies and increased water consumption in Sonargaon Upazila, leading to groundwater-related disasters and a decline in the groundwater table. Private irrigation facilities have become more popular among people, contributing to the declining groundwater table. This study provides insights into the changing water sources and extraction methods in Bangladesh, identifies the consequences of current water consumption trends, and proposes strategies for sustainable water management. The findings underline the importance of informed decision-making, government intervention, and community involvement to address the challenges of groundwater depletion and contamination in the region.

Community Led Climate Adaptation: A case study of Whykong union, Teknaf Upazila under Coxsbazar district in Bangladesh

The study was conducted in Whykong union, Teknaf upazila under coxsbazar district, an area prone to climate-related vulnerabilities. The primary aims and objectives of the case study to assess the impact of climate change, economic condition and community led adaptation initiatives to the selected study location. Data was collected through self-selected sampling from the total amount of community by using KOBO data collection tools. The study reveals successful community-led adaptation practices, innovative approaches, and the impact of local empowerment on resilience. Females account for 55%, while males account for 45%. According to the data, the most common occupation among the participants was housewife, with a frequency of accounting for 54.84% of the total. 54.84% had an income level of less than 5000 BDT. The most prevalent challenge reported by the respondents is the Rohingya Crisis, with a frequency of 93.55%. Poverty is another major challenge, with a frequency of 70.97%. Water scarcity is also a significant challenge, reported by 67.74%. Respondent perception showed that the government which accounts for 74.19% of the total initiatives. The need for climate education and awareness is also recognized, accounting for 70.97% of the total initiatives. This highlights the importance of educating and creating awareness about climate change among the public. CBOs/NGOs/INGOs activities have also contributed significantly, with accounting for 70.97% of the total. Domestic rainwater harvesting accounts for 45% of the community-led initiatives. This initiative involves capturing and storing rainwater for domestic use. It helps to minimize water scarcity during dry periods and reduces reliance on groundwater sources. Pond Sand Filter (PSF) accounts for 30% of the community-led initiatives. It aims to protect the community from climate-related hazards. Diversification of livelihoods accounts for 65% of the community-led initiatives. It helps reduce dependence on climate-sensitive sectors and promotes sustainable livelihood practices. Community participation and decision-making account for 49% of the community-led initiatives. The insights derived from the case study have implications for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers involved in climate resilience efforts. Community-led adaptation in building climate resilience and fostering collaboration and integrating local knowledge into broader climate change mitigation and adaptation.

Fresh water management in coastal Bangladesh: preparedness and adaptation

Water management is very significant because of changing the pattern of rainfall, seasonal variation of rainfall, sea level rising, water consumption pattern, acceleration of water quality and unavailability of fresh water in the coastal areas of Bangladesh due to adverse impacts of natural calamities. The aims were to investigate fresh water management with preparedness and adaptation strategies. Household data were collected from respective union parisad and total 338 households (out of 2789) were determined considering 95% significance level from three shoreline (Bagerhat), interim (Khulna) and inland (Satkhira) coastal regions of Bangladesh which distributed proportionately. Data were collected with self-administrated semi-structured questionnaire and three FGDs and analyzed with SPSS. Map was drawn by Arc GIS software. The study resulted that plastic bottle was dominantly used as conservation system for drinking (58.28%) and rainwater (44.08%). Besides, plastic drum, silver pots, earthen and ferro cement container were also used to conserve water. The mean weighted average index of preparedness of household and homestead agriculture is moderate (0.332) in inland and poor in shoreline (0.313) and interim (0.309) area. About 25.15% households satisfied with current water supply system. Individually, about 65.76% respondents adopted pond sand filter technology in the shoreline, followed by 16.90% (interim) and 37.35% (inland) area. Other adaptation strategies (rainwater harvesting, pond water conservation, potable jar water use, re-excavation of pond, boiling pond/canal water) were adopted by households and institutions with seasonal variations. Proper adaptation strategies should be taken with involving the local stakeholders for better performance in the study area.

Quality and efficiency assessment, health issues and management practices of pond sand filter water in coastal Bangladesh

Quality and efficiency assessment, health issues and management practices of pond sand filter water in coastal Bangladesh

The Changing Climate Is Changing Safe Drinking Water, Impacting Health: A Case in the Southwestern Coastal Region of Bangladesh (SWCRB)

This study focuses on investigating the impact of climate change on the availability of safe drinking water and human health in the Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh (SWCRB). Additionally, it explores local adaptation approaches aimed at addressing these challenges. The research employed a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to gather data. Qualitative data were collected through various means such as case studies, workshops, focus group discussions (FGDs), interviews, and key informant interviews (KIIs). The study specifically collected qualitative data from 12 unions in the Shyamnagar Upazila. On the other hand, through the quantitative method, we collected respondents’ answers through a closed-ended questionnaire survey from 320 respondents from nine unions in the first phase of this study. In the next phase, we also collected data from the three most vulnerable unions of Shyamnagar Upazila, namely Poddo Pukur, Gabura, and Burigoalini, where 1579 respondents answered questions regarding safe drinking water and health conditions due to climate change. The findings of the study indicate that local communities in the region acknowledge the significant impact of sea-level rise (SLR) on freshwater sources and overall well-being, primarily due to increased salinity. Over 70% of the respondents identified gastrointestinal issues, hypertension, diarrhea, malnutrition, and skin diseases as major waterborne health risks arising from salinity and lack of access to safe water. Among the vulnerable groups, women and children were found to be particularly susceptible to waterborne diseases related to salinity. While the study highlights the presence of certain adaptation measures against health-related problems, such as community clinics and health centers at the upazila level, as well as seeking healthcare from local and paramedical doctors, it notes that these measures are insufficient. In terms of safe drinking water, communities have adopted various adaptation strategies, including pond excavation to remove saline water (partially making it potable), implementing pond sand filters, rainwater harvesting, and obtaining potable water from alternative sources. However, these efforts alone do not fully address the challenges associated with ensuring safe drinking water.

Constraints related to the Community Management Model for Shared Drinking Water Systems Governance in Coastal Bangladesh

The community management (CM) model has been touted as a superior alternative to state control or privatization with regard to the governance of rural Bangladesh's shared drinking water systems (SDWSs) since the 1990s. Later, especially around the start of the 21st century, this model reached its limit, causing dysfunction in several SDWSs in the country. Due to the increasing institutional and socio-economic constraints, the pure community management strategy is unlikely to lead to SDWSs’ durability. This paper, therefore, investigates the limitations that prevent the CM strategy from maximizing SDWSs’ performance in Bangladesh. To this end, a qualitative case study approach was employed to examine pond sand filters (PSFs)—a shared drinking water system—in the southwestern coastal zone of Bangladesh. The study selected 30 functional and dysfunctional PSFs following purposive sampling from three unions (ten per union) in southwestern Bangladesh. This paper finds that a low level of community participation, lack of management rules, absence of an active maintenance committee and their financial incentive, community’s unwillingness to pay, dominance of the local elite, and lack of external support represent barriers to the success of the CM approach in ensuring the durable functionality of SDWSs in coastal Bangladesh. The findings have major implications for policymakers and practitioners seeking to optimize the community management model to ensure the durable functionality of a shared drinking water system in both rural Bangladesh and similar contexts worldwide.

The effect of drinking water sources due to Cyclone Aila at Shyamnagar, Sathkhira district, Bangladesh

Bangladesh is the most vulnerable country to disaster and its impact. Coastal Bangladesh along with the Bay of Bengal is the most important and suffered group of cyclone impacts. Cyclone Aila hit the southwestern coast of Bangladesh on 25 May 2009. About two million people were affected and washed away a huge number of households, lives, livestock, crops, and all other resources of the affected area. Water resources in the coastal area are always a term of crisis and even the aila mostly damaged all the resources including surface or groundwater sources. This study focuses on the recovery status of the affected area with considering the drinking water sources. About 36 water samples had been collected for the experiment including rainwater harvesting (6), pond sand filters (6), protected pond (6), and hand tube well (6) from specific six unions of Shyamnagar Upazilla under Sathkhira District in between the time of August to October 2016. A questionnaire field survey was conducted in the most affected coastal area in Bangladesh where about 103 households (309 respondents) participated in their willingness and the study considering their frequency of loss. The results showed a huge dimension of the water crisis and its mitigation. Protected pond and tube well water exceeded the DoE standard for almost all chemical parameters except potassium (3.28 mg/L and 3.75 mg/L), sulfate (377.19 mg/L and 225.66 mg/L), chloride (365.05 mg/L and 349.10 mg/L) and arsenic (1.76±0.25 mg/L and 3.78±1.43). Pond sand filter (PSF) and rainwater harvesting (RWH) had shown the lowest amount of all chemical concentrations compared with another two sources. The respondents face the problem of the distance from the household and the yearly availability of drinking water. They demand monitoring and source management system improvement along with community-based resource management. From the aila event, a huge recovery application is implemented here but these are not sufficient. Respondents gave some opinions to solve this crisis. Considering all aspects, they need a low-cost and more efficient drinking water source to survive their situation.

Pond sand filter as an alternative system for purifying drinking water: climate change perspective in Mongla, Bangladesh

Pond sand filter as an alternative system for purifying drinking water: climate change perspective in Mongla, Bangladesh

Drinking Water Supply Options in Arsenic and Salinity Affected Areas of Bangladesh: A Case Study

Widespread groundwater arsenic contamination in south, south-western and north-eastern regions and high salinity in the south-western coastal region are the two major challenges for drinking water supply in Bangladesh. In this study, we assessed various water supply technologies used for mitigating arsenic and salinity in Laksam of Cumilla and Assasuni of Satkhira district. Water samples were analyzed for Arsenic, Iron, Chloride (indicator for salinity) and FC from different water extraction systems (shallow, deep and Tara tubewells), groundwater arsenic treatment units (SIDKO and READ-F), rainwater harvesting systems (RWH), pond sand filters (PSF), and managed aquifer recharge units. Most shallow tubewells, both in Laksam and Assasuni, have been found to produce arsenic contaminated water. But water from deep and Tara tubewells have been found arsenic-free, though high concentration of iron was observed in the wells in Laksam. Rainwater harvesting systems, PSF and MAR units in Assasuni have been found to provide water free from the common chemical contaminants but suffer from high bacterial contamination. Deep tubewell appear to be the most preferred option where a suitable aquifer is available. The community-scale groundwater treatment systems would require strong operation and maintenance support from the service providers to be successful.
 Environ. Sci. & Natural Resources, 12(1&2): 215-223, 2019

A Community Management Plus Model for the Governance of Rural Drinking Water Systems: A Comparative Case Study of Pond Sand Filter Systems in Bangladesh

Rural drinking water systems (RDWS) in Bangladesh and elsewhere fail more often than we would want. The acknowledgment that pure community management models will not reverse this trend is growing: RDWS users need support. In an attempt to further understanding what this support could look like we in particular zoom in on the role of public agencies. We ask, (i) what conditions explain variation in collective action among the end-users of an RDWS? and, (ii) what conditions explain variation in collaboration between RDWS end-users and a public agency? We lean on concepts and insights borrowed from the commons literature. After all, rural drinking water systems can be framed as a commons: its users face appropriation and above all provision dilemmas, that must be solved to avoid failure. Based on this literature we develop a list of enabling conditions for (i) collective action among RDWS end-users, and (ii) collaboration between RDWS end-users, and a public agency. We applied these lists to study the governance of 30 pond sand filter (PSF) systems in the Southwestern coastal area in Bangladesh. Computing correlation, we find that large group size, interdependency among the group members, heterogeneity of endowments, a high level of dependence on resource system, locally devised access and management rules and well-working collaboration between PSF users and the public agency are significantly associated with the occurrence of collective action among PSF users. We also find that the latter (i.e. collaboration between PSF users and the public agency) is positively influenced by transparency and inclusive decision-making procedures, but mostly by a relation that is characterized by trust.

Twenty Years of Arsenic Contamination and Arsenicosis Patients in a Village of Bangladesh

Background: Arsenic contamination in groundwater of Bangladesh was first detected in 1993 and still a major public health problem in the country. In 1997, Samta was identified as a severely arsenic contaminated village and many villagers were found to suffering from arsenicosis. Methods: A series of surveys were carried out in Samta village in the years 1997, 2002, 2008 and 2017 to assess the situation of arsenic contamination and the status of arsenicosis in the village. The water sources and the entire population of the village were included in the study. Results: In 1997 about 87% of the shallow tubewells in Samta village were arsenic-contaminated and 10.1% villagers had arsenicosis. Twenty years later in 2017, about 90% shallow tubewells were arsenic contaminated, 39 deep tubewells and a pond sand filter were installed in the village and 2.3% of the villagers had arsenicosis. On an average 43.8% arsenicosis patients had recovered from the illness and condition of 21.2% patients had deteriorated or remained unchanged. During the 20-year period 37(6.1%) arsenicosis patients and 185(1.6%) non-arsenicosis villagers had died. The main cause of death among arsenicosis patients was cancer (40.5%) and among non-arsenicosis villagers the cause was geriatric problem (11.8%). The mean age at death was 57.6 years and 61.2 years respectively. Conclusion: In twenty years, measures were undertaken to make available arsenic-safe water options and people were motivated to stop the use of arsenic-contaminated water and to increase the intake of protein and vitamin AEC rich food. Recovery had occurred in a substantial proportion of patients.

Optimum Solution for the Safe Drinking Water Crisis in Tala Upazila, Bangladesh

Coastal areas of Bangladesh are especially vulnerable due to their physiographic location and exposure to natural calamities. Around 35 million people living in coastal areas have no access or limited access to safe drinking water. Contamination of water sources by salinity, arsenic or iron are the principal causes of water scarcity. Rising sea levels and unevenness of climatic events due to climate change will exacerbate the situation in coastal areas, especially in the southwestern coastal zone. This study examines one of the vulnerable coastal upazila Tala at Satkhira (an “upazila” is a medium level administrative unit in Bangladesh) in the southwestern zone of Bangladesh to understand the gravity of the problems. The study develops a GIS based multi-criteria analysis to identify suitable options and locations of fresh water as part of a current and future solution to the problems and further deterioration. To fulfill the objectives, a questionnaire-based GPS guided field survey was conducted to collect details of field level conditions in order to find a suitable solution. Because aquifers are considered the primary source of drinking water, field data have been analyzed for two distinct aquifers, one relatively shallow and one deeper, to understand aquifer quality. Potentiality of different water sources the socioeconomic status of communities, types of water use and corresponding sources and water demand are also evaluated. The analysis finds that alternative water sources that are safe are difficult to find, because both surface and groundwater-based sources are already contaminated, and there are no nearby, easily accessible safe sources. Groundwater-based sources are contaminated by arsenic, iron or salinity, and surface water-based sources are not in use due to maintenance and management issues. In some cases, surface water sources are polluted by flash flooding of high saline water during storm surges or seepage from saline water-based aquacultures. Multiple limitations identified during field observations and field data analysis were considered as an analytical parameter A GIS based multi-criteria analysis incorporated field data, including Geo-spatial and socioeconomic information for road networks, settlement locations, number of households, quality and quantity of existing water sources, water demand and business opportunities. The analysis found some potential options in distributed locations which are consistent with community demand. Suggested options made use of technologies that are already understood and commonly used by communities, like deep tubewells, PSFs (Pond Sand Filter) and WTPs (Water Treatment Plant). In the study area, PSF is the most commonly used method and to make this surface water-based technology sustainable some precautionary measurements are suggested.

Why Do People Remain Attached to Unsafe Drinking Water Options? Quantitative Evidence from Southwestern Bangladesh

The acceptance of newly implemented, safe drinking water options is not guaranteed. In the Khulna and Satkhira districts, Bangladesh, pond water is pathogen-contaminated, while groundwater from shallow tubewells may be arsenic- or saline-contaminated. This study aims to determine why, as well as the extent to which, people are expected to remain attached to using these unsafe water options, compared to the following four safer drinking water options: deep tubewells, pond sand filters, vendor water, and rainwater harvesting. Through 262 surveys, this study explores whether five explanatory factors (risk, attitude, norms, reliability, and habit) pose barriers to switching from unsafe to safe drinking water options or whether they could act as facilitators of such a switch. Users’ attachment to using pond water is generally low (facilitators: risk and attitude. Barrier: norms). Users are more attached to shallow tubewells (no facilitators. Barriers: reliability and habit). The safe alternatives (deep tubewell, rain water harvesting, pond sand filter, and vendor water) score significantly better than pond water and are estimated to have the potential to be adopted by pond water users. Deep tubewell, rain water harvesting, and pond sand filter also score better than shallow tubewells and could also have the potential to replace them. These findings may be used to optimise implementation strategies for safer drinking water alternatives.

Examining the Economics of Affordability Through Water Diaries in Coastal Bangladesh

Monitoring affordability of drinking water services is constrained by data gaps from traditional approaches that rely on cross-sectional data from infrequent, nationally representative surveys. Estimates of income or expenditure ratios spent on accessing a main source of drinking water are poorly equipped to reflect affordability in rural contexts where poor people often resort to multiple sources of varying costs, quality and distance to cope with unreliable or absent water supplies. Here, we present findings from an 18-week water diary study that documented daily water choices and expenditures of a stratified sample of 120 households in coastal Bangladesh. This intensive, longitudinal monitoring is supported by household surveys, water infrastructure mapping, hydrogeological analysis of salinity, automated rainfall measurements and interviews with diary participants. We identify five water expenditure typologies, ranging from those who always rely on unpaid and often poor-quality sources like shallow tubewells, pond sand filters and rainwater, to those who purchase vended water for drinking and cooking all year-round, spending 3–7% of total household expenditure. These behavioral dynamics are shaped by environmental, infrastructure and cultural factors, with household wealth being a weak indicator of behavior. We conclude that affordability measures should recognize the quality of service available and chosen by users across seasons, rather than being fixated on income or expenditure ratios for a main source. Measuring the latter without considering the former impedes the design of service delivery models appropriate for providing safe and reliable water supplies, at costs that users and society are willing to bear and sustain.

Drinking water desalination using low-cost Tubular Solar Still

Growing freshwater scarcity in arid and remote areas usually is caused by the growth of population, urbanization and industrialization and the rather limited natural resources of potable water. In coastal belt of southwest region of Bangladesh, groundwater contains high salinity as well as excessive arsenic contamination. Though pond sand filter and rainwater harvesting system are usually used to meet the freshwater demand throughout the year in this area, along with these, household-based solar desalination could be a good source of drinking water in this region. In this study, a low-cost Tubular Solar Still (TSS) was designed using locally available materials to meet such demand. It was consisted of a tubular frame (0.00275 m thick helical GI wire, 1.0 m long and 0.2 m in diameter) and a rectangular tray (1.0 m × 0.16 m × 0.05 m ) covered with black polythene paper. The collection bottle was kept in an insulation box. The field experiment on the constructed TSS was carried out on the rooftop of Civil Engineering Department building from June 25, 2011, to June 20, 2012. Daily distilled output from the TSS was collected approximately 2 h after sunset. The maximum daily production rate was found as 3.83 l/m2 in May 2012. The production cost of distilled water is estimated as 0.39 BDT/L or 0.0046 USD/L. The application of this process can fulfill the demand of freshwater for drinking purpose for single household in coastal areas.

Geogenic Arsenic and Microbial Contamination in Drinking Water Sources: Exposure Risks to the Coastal Population in Bangladesh

The study aimed to investigate the most usable drinking water sources quality and the dependent population’s exposure to potentially contaminated water. The specific area chosen for the study was the coastal area in Satkhira district’s Tala Upazila. 649 most usable drinking water sources were selected that included Deep Tubewell (DTW), Shallow Tubewell (STW) and Pond Sand Filter (PSF) for drinking water sampling. Following standard sampling procedures, in-situ measurements were taken for seven important water quality parameters: Arsenic-As, Iron-Fe, Electrical Conductivity-EC, Temperature-Temp, Total Coliform- TC, E-coli and Fecal Coliform-FC. In addition, semi-structured questionnaire surveys were conducted at corresponding dependent households (HH). Weighted arithmetic water quality index (WQI) was used to calculate the suitability of the derived water for drinking purposes. In the tested water sources, As, Fe and EC range were found 0-500 µg/L, 0-18 mg/L and 165-8715 µS/cm, respectively. Of all tested water sources, 74% exceeded permissible limit for As, 83% for Fe and 99% for EC, according to WHO standards. Comparatively higher percentage of Point of Uses (PoU) were found to be more contaminated than Point of Sources (PoS) such as TC found in 38% PoS and 54% of corresponding PoU, E.coli found in 24% PoS and 35% of PoU and FC found in 45% PoS and 55% of PoU. WQI suggested that the majority (72%) of most usable drinking water sources were found to be unsuitable for drinking. Thus, 40% of the population (0.12 million) in the study area were directly consuming contaminated water, dependent household members most frequently suffered from fever, diarrhea and high blood pressure, resulting in the average household to spend USD 3-13 per month/HH for health-related expenditures, which is higher than national average. To acquire safe drinking water, the majority (58%) of the dependent HH expressed willingness to pay USD 1 per month/ HH which is costly for them. The situation can be improved by installing deep tube well for safe drinking water, periodically testing of the water quality, educating public for better hygiene practices, and providing entrepreneurial incentives to help deliver safe water to the public at lower cost.

Coliform Bacteria and Trace Metals in Drinking Water, Southwest Bangladesh: Multivariate and Human Health Risk Assessment

In this study, drinking water sources of tube well (TW), pond sand filter (PSF), rainwater, SIDKO (arsenic treatment plant), and Kuya (open well) were monitored in the southwest coastal area of Assasuni Upazila, Satkhira, Bangladesh. Faecal coliform, total coliform, and trace metals, especially arsenic (As), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd), iron (Fe), and zinc (Zn), were measured in drinking water. Totally, 73 water samples were analyzed for faecal coliform and total coliform bacteria, whereas 26 water sources from TWs (22), PSF (2), SIDKO (1) and Kuya (1) were inspected for trace metals. The water samples were free from 46.6% faecal coliform and 39.7% total coliform bacteria, respectively. On the other hand, As content has exceeded both WHO and Bangladesh standards. Due to lack of routine maintenance of As treatment plants (PSF and SIDKO), they are impotent in removing As completely. Besides, multivariate statistical principal component analysis indicts the availability of trace metals in drinking water originated both from natural and anthropogenic sources. Mean values of hazard quotient of As for both adult and children exceeded the standard limit, and hazardous index values both for adults and children were very high which might pose a potential human health risk of the study area. Even, TW above acceptable limit of mean carcinogenic risk values of As intimated cancer risk due to the lifespan drinking of As-contaminated water for both adults and children. Authority should take initiative to find priority-basis sustainable policies ensuring potable water sources in this territory.

Impacts of Salinity Intrusion in Community Health: A Review of Experiences on Drinking Water Sodium from Coastal Areas of Bangladesh.

Increasing salt intake has substantial negative impacts on human health and well-being. This article focused on the construction of Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework for drinking water sodium (DWS) followed by a review on the published studies regarding salinity intrusion, DWS, and their effects on health perspectives in Bangladesh. Saline water is an important factor for hypertension or high blood pressure in the coastal areas. DWS can also lead women, especially pregnant women, to an increased risk of (pre)eclampsia, hypertension, as well as infant mortality. Several interventions, such as rainwater harvesting, pond sand filter (PSF) system, managed aquifer recharge (MAR), and pilot scale solar-powered desalination plants, such as reverse osmosis (RO), were reviewed on the context of their effectiveness in controlling drinking water sodium. Although rainwater consumption has the positive impact of low or no sodium intake, it still possesses negative impacts from not having vital minerals. A steady increment in sodium concentration through the span of the dry season was observed in MAR. It is, subsequently, important to increase awareness on DWS intake by providing and adopting correct technological interventions and training communities on the maintenance of the adaptive measures.

Climate Change, Water Scarcity, and Health Adaptation in Southwestern Coastal Bangladesh

Climate change may affect human health through multiple and interactive pathways that include safe water scarcity. However, impacts of climate change-induced water scarcity on health and well-being are complex. About 80% of illnesses in developing countries are attributed to unsafe drinking water and waterborne diseases. In Southwestern Bangladesh, lack of safe drinking water is a severe crisis due to climate change. The study investigated the impacts of climate change on water resources and human health in a coastal area. A questionnaire survey was carried out in two villages of Shymnagar upazila on the southwestern coast to investigate the present status of safe water sources and health care facilities and their impacts on the local community. The results show that the local community believes that climate change is having substantial impacts on freshwater sources and health. More than 70% of the respondents identified diarrhea, dysentery, and skin diseases as the prime waterborne health risks that occur through climate-related safe water scarcity. By synthesizing the ground data, we suggest pathways to health adaptation to climate change effects and safe water scarcity through locally available adaptive practices such as the use of pond sand filters, rainwater harvesting, and importing potable water with the active participation of the government, nongovernmental organizations, and communities.