Polonnaruwa District Research Articles

Identification of Novel Rodent-Borne Orthohantaviruses in an Endemic Area of Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology (CKDu) in Sri Lanka.

We reported the genetic evidence of circulating hantaviruses from small mammals captured in a chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) hotspot area of Sri Lanka. The high seroprevalence of anti-hantavirus antibodies against Thailand orthohantavirus (THAIV) has been reported among CKDu patients and rodents in Sri Lankan CKDu hotspots. We captured 116 small mammals from CKDu endemic regions in the Polonnaruwa District of Sri Lanka. Seven animals (five out of 11 Mus booduga and two out of 99 Rattus rattus) were PCR-positive for the hantavirus. A rat-borne sequence was grouped with a THAIV-like Anjozorobe virus. In contrast, Mus-borne sequences belonged to the THAIV lineage, suggesting a novel orthohantavirus species according to the phylogenetic analyses and whole-genome comparisons. Our genetic evidence indicates the presence of two THAIV-related viruses circulating in this CKDu endemic area, suggesting a basis for further investigations to identify the infectious virus in patients with CKDu and the CKDu induction mechanism of these viruses.

Factors that Present Obstacles to the Learning of Quran: A Study based on Polonnaruwa District in Sri Lanka

Al-Quran is the divine revelation to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), which started with the word "Iqra". Quranic education is an obligation to every Muslim. It is the responsibility of parents and teachers to help the new generation with Quranic learning so they become true Muslims and better humankind. Today, children and younger generations have more opportunities to learn the Quran properly, as compared to middle-aged people who do not have such opportunities even if they are interested in learning; Polonnaruwa district in Sri Lanka is no exception. In this study, we discovered the challenges that are faced by middle-aged people in learning the Holy Quran. This is a qualitative research. The key tool used in this study was a structured interview, which was participated by 40 middle aged people in Polonnaruwa. According to the results, it was found that the challenges faced by the participants include the lack of understanding on the importance of the Quran, the growing hatred toward Muslim “Alims”, inadequate teaching with a proper method to recite the Quran and the failure to teach the Quran with proper guidance. Such are the reasons for the middle-aged people not being able to recite the Quran properly at present, even though they had attended the madrassa at a young age. In terms of gender, it was found that females are more interested in Quranic learning than males. Factors namely the lack of formally trained teacher and the reluctance of middle-aged people in participating the Quranic lesson have been identified as the most critical challenges that hinder Quranic learning among the middle-aged people despite their desire to learn. Based on these findings, it is suggested that the training and courses related to Quranic learning specially for middle-aged people be made necessary for them by the local mosques and Sri Lankan Muslim Cultural and Religious Affairs Department. In addition, the “Alims” and “Alimahs”, who are graduated from Arabic colleges should come forward to teach the Quran to these middle-aged people. Keywords: Obstacle to learning the Quran, learningof Al Quran, Quran madrassa, Middle-aged People DOI: 10.7176/RHSS/11-13-04 Publication date: June 30 th 2021

POS-314 People’s knowledge of Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology in Sri Lanka

The identification of CKDu in its early stages is crucial for the patients more than for the health providers as it helps to prevent them from further complications and progression into severe stages of the disease. Studies on the estimates of people’s knowledge of CKDu and their ability to identify the disease early and seek treatment are unknown in Sri Lanka. Knowledge is measured in this study comprises information acquired from authoritative sources such as the local health department. The items of knowledge displayed in posters and educational sessions were used to construct the questionnaire of 67 knowledge items. The study used a descriptive, cross-sectional design to identify patients’ knowledge and at-risk behaviors in the Medirigiriya DS division in Polonnaruwa District. The randomly obtained sample of 200 families was from 12 agricultural settlements in six Grama Niladhari (GN) divisions. A team of seven research assistants and the author conducted qualitative research, and 200 semi-structured interviews. The interviews were conducted with the chief householder or their spouse, who gave their verbal consent. The interviews were conducted in Sinhalese and translated into English. The questionnaire data were computer entered and analyzed in SPSS. Textual data were analyzed in the Atlas/Ti program for textual data analysis. The mean knowledge score was 36.1 (S.D 7.76) for 178 families which, when converted to a percentage, was 42.3%. The CKDu knowledge scores increased as the age of patients increased (P 0.05). It shows that older patients were more knowledgeable of CKDu. The total knowledge score and socioeconomic status are significantly correlated (r.191 at the 0.05 level -two-tail test). Knowledge was lower among the old, less educated, low-income families and paddy farmers who owned paddy land less than 1 acre. Almost every interviewee was aware that a blood test should be done to identify CKDu. None of the respondents correctly answered all the 67 items of the knowledge questionnaire. 28.5% (n = 57) of the participants answered 42 to 50 questions correct, 35% (n=71) respondents answered 39 to 41 answers correct, and 34% (n=68) answered 8 to 32 questions correct. Furthermore, 86% (n =172) of the participants knew that the kidneys make urine, 64.5% (n=129) knew that kidneys clean blood, but only 17.5% (n=35) knew kidneys help regulate blood sugar, 15.5% (n=31) knew that kidneys help regulate blood pressure and breakdown proteins in the blood. Most participants did not know that CKDu can help prevent its progression into severe stages if identified in the initial stages. 72.5% (n=145) believed that identifying CKDu in a person is like getting a death certificate, but 90.5% (n=181) viewed that medications could slow down the disease's progression. Therefore, well over 90% of CKDu patients attend hospitals and clinics to get medications. Despite the high prevalence of CKDu among middle-aged rice paddy farmers, most respondents in the endemic areas knew very little about the disease, its causation, and treatment. The findings show that more community programs are needed to educate the people in the lower income groups, the rice paddy farmers, agricultural laborers, and older people. Implementing CKDu educational programs, measuring their effectiveness and efficacy should be a priority.

Drinking Water and CKD of Unknown Etiology in Sri Lanka: A Community Perspective

People’s belief that polluted drinking water is the principal medium through which environmental toxins are absorbed into the bodies of CKD of unknown etiology (CKDu) patients in the CKDu-endemic areas in Sri Lanka has been the subject of extensive epidemiological and medical research. This study examines (a) the people’s perception and experience that polluted drinking water is the cause of CKDu, (b) how the government responded to people’s demands for potable water, and (c) the impact of the use of alternative drinking water sources on the health of CKDu patients and their families, and on the progression of the disease in CKDu patients. Data were collected in 2013 and 2019 in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa districts in North Central Province of Sri Lanka. People’s agitation, activism, and lobbying, together with the media’s work in bringing the issue of polluted water to the forefront of political discourse, have prompted the government, private sector agencies, and community organizations to supply clean water to affected communities. A massive change in drinking water behaviors has occurred following the government’s decision to supply reverse osmosis (RO) water to the affected communities. Informants perceived the provision of RO water as having brought about many positive outcomes in the health and disease progression of CKDu patients.

The First Record of the Archeoastronomical Bind Rune Associated with Petroglyphs in Danigala Circular Rock, Sri Lanka

Danigala Rock is a unique geological site situated near Kandegama at Polonnaruwa district. The aerial view of the rock shows a semi-circular shape, which was affected by geological weathering. The northwest slope part of Danigala inselberg has interesting petroglyphs discovered in Chithra Lena (7°41'0.44"N | 81°12'45.66"E). These symbols are relatively new and, for the first time, discovered in Sri Lanka during an archaeoastronomical survey conducted by Eco Astronomy Sri Lanka in a corporation with Central Cultural Fund (Polonnaruwa-Alahana Parivena Project). These petroglyphs, now perceived and assessed as art, are mute science prints of ancient cultural vestiges of a bygone society. The predominant forms found are partially similar with few forms found in some sites in Sri Lanka, but with distinct differences in the engraving process. Notably, samples of the bind rune coding of Danigala petroglyphs are quite similar to bind rune’s symbols of Shamanic cultures. Besides, the engraving technique is remarkably similar to the technique used in the petroglyphs of Edakkal Caves in India. This paper is an attempt to document and analyze this bind rune coding in purpose to uncover the archaeo-astronomical meaning and the historical beliefs.

The Paddy Farmers’ Channel Choice and Links to the Public and Private Marketing Channels in Sri Lanka

A better understanding of the paddy marketing channels paves the way to explore the dynamics of the rice economy in mixed marketing conditions. Thus, paddy/rice industry in Sri Lanka has now become a serious concern with all its multi-faceted implications. This study examines the influencing factors for the choice of marketing channels by the paddy farmers as well as the links to the public and private marketing channels in Sri Lanka. A sample of 345 farmers were selected using multi-stage random sampling from DS divisions in Ampara, Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa and Batticaloa districts. A pre-tested structured questionnaire and focus group discussions were conducted to collect primary data. Binary logistic regression was deployed for the data analysis. Results revealed that the average paddy land cultivated in the Maha season in Anuradhapura, Ampara, Polonnaruwa and Batticaloa was 3.41 ac., 3.50 ac., 3.09 ac., and 4.80 ac. respectively. Nearly 52% of the farmers sold their paddy to the Paddy Marketing Board (PMB) showing the popularity of the Government Paddy Purchasing Programme (GPPP) in major producing areas. Analysis further indicated that, low land extent (p<0.1), availability of paddy storage facility (p<0.1), distance to PMB centers (p<0.1), distance to private collectors (p<0.05) and quantity of wet paddy sold (p<0.1) were the criteria which had significant impact over choice of paddy marketing channels. Positive significant coefficient of ‘Distance to PMB center’ reflects that, even if a selected farmer is residing far from the PMB center, he or she is more inclined to select GPPP. PMB centers offer more price premium than in the open market and in some cases, this was more than Rs.10.00/kg. “Quantity of wet paddy sold” is the variable which indicates a negative and significant impact on selecting GPPP. If a particular farmer tends to sell higher quantity of paddy as ‘wet paddy’, he or she is less likely to select GPPP. Farmers who, did not possess safe storage facilities, had difficulties in finding a suitable place to dry paddy, had high labour requirement to reach 14% moisture content in the final produce and the farmers who faced immediate cash needs were more inclined towards private buyers. There are more opportunities for small-scale farmers who produce limited surplus of paddy in government paddy purchasing channel. More time and cost involved, ineffective buying process, strict quality checks, lack of sufficient storage facilities, delaying of the commencement of purchasing and lack of drying facilities are the major problems faced by the farmers when selling paddy to the PMB centers. The major problem highlighted by the farmers regarding selling paddy to private sector is inability to receive a fair price.

Exploring the Yield Response of Paddy (<em>Oryza sativa</em> L.) under Varying Levels of Soil Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium

Assessment of crop responses under varying levels of soil available nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) is important to develop site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) strategies. This study was conducted to investigate the spatial variability of soil N, P and K levels in paddy grown soils in Anuradhapura, Kurunegala and Polonnaruwa districts and corresponding yield response for nutrient application. Seventy-one paddy fields were selected and four plots (3×6 m) were established at each site comprised of a treatment applied with ample amount of N, P and K and corresponding omission treatments. At harvesting, total yield of each plot was recorded. Considerable heterogeneity of soil N (12.5-43.9 mg/kg), P (2.7-34.2 mg/kg) and K (14.6-221.9 mg/kg) was observed in paddy grown soils of the three districts. A significantly higher average yield of N applied treatment (5.8 Mg/ha) than that of N omitted treatment (3.9 Mg/ha) indicated a yield response for N application. However, nonsignificant differences of average yields of P (5.7 Mg/ha) and K (5.6 Mg/ha) omitted and ample treatments (5.8 Mg/ha) revealed a poor yield response for the application of these nutrients. Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that neither the initial soil P and K levels nor the other studied factors (growing season, irrigation scheme, soil texture, pH, EC, available Fe and Mg) have an impact on yield responses observed for P and K applications. Our results indicated large spatial heterogeneity in soil P and K levels in paddy grown soils. Absence of a significant response for the applied P and K and a considerable variability of yield responses highlighted the need of further studies on P and K reserves of paddy growing soils and factors controlling the variability in yield response. Further, site-specific application of N is shown as a priority to improve the productivity of paddy lands.

Role of destination smartness in shaping tourist satisfaction: A SEM based on technological attributes in Sri Lanka

The widespread sprout of mobile technology, specially the smartphone, has further transformed the tourism experience and empowered today’s travellers by bringing together information search, communication, entertainment, social networking and mobility-related functionalities to the fingertips of on-the-go travellers & it provide quick response & information widely dispersed. Smart tourism has become a modern trend in tourism industry. It is one of the critical researchable area to search the potentiality of Sri Lanka as a smart tourist destination. The main objective is to identify smart features and the degree of smartness of Sri Lanka as a tourist destination from the perspective of tourists. One thousand fifty two tourists from Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Sigiriya, Kandy, Nuwaraeliya, Ella, Galle, Matara, Kaluthara and Colombo districts are selected to collect data through a structured questionnaire. To identify the destination smartness researcher has been conducted multiple mediator analysis. Also structural equation modelling (SEM) has conducted by using smartPLS software. Results revealed that both mediators have partial mediation impact between the relationship of smart tourism attributes and travel experience satisfaction. Thus, the results could encourage the formation of Smart Tourism Destinations. With technology being embedded within the destinations environment, it can enrich tourist experiences and enhance destinations competitiveness. Tourism planners and managers will benefit from a better understanding of the integral elements of smart tourism destinations and it will support their efforts in developing competitiveness for destinations of the country.

Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease (Spatial Inquiry of 2016-2017) in Polonnaruwa District, Sri Lanka

The CKD as a serious public health hazard in Sri Lanka, which is the cause of poverty and underdevelopment among affected families in various parts of the country. CKD has become a new challenge for the health sector and driven people to the loss of livelihood, productivity, and increase the cost of treatment. This paper emphasized the prevalence of CKD and unequal frequencies of the disease in different health regions (MOHs) in Polonnaruwa district, Sri Lanka. Based on primary and secondary data analysis, the results of the findings were produced in a descriptive way in which tables, maps, and charts were also administered. The study mainly used ArcGIS (ArcMap 10.3) software to identify the different distribution of CKD unequally in different health regions (seven MOH divisions) in the district. The study found that the endemic of CKD and affected patients, HD patients, and death rate also occurred unequally in each MOH division in different means. The distribution of CKD occurred due to the geographical setting, social, economic patterns of the people in the study area.Nevertheless, this study only focused on understanding the different prevalence of CKD in each MOH division in a particular district. However, the study needs to be extended further to identify the factors and impacts due to this chronic health issue in the district and country as a whole. The study suggested that CKD has become a major obstacle to the ongoing development activities in the district; thus, the government needs to identify disseminate methods to prevent CKD from this study area, as well as from Sri Lanka

Identification of stress tolerant rhizobial strains inhabiting <em>Gliricidia sepium</em> in Polonnaruwa district, Sri Lanka

Rhizobia are well-reputed biological nitrogen fixing organisms due to their proficiency in symbiotic root nodule formation with leguminous plants. Gliricidia sepium is a widely distributed legume which hosts a wide range of rhizobia. Few studies have been carried out to identify the stress tolerant rhizobial populations inhabiting G. sepium in Sri Lanka. This study was focused on the characterization and identification of stress tolerant rhizobial strains residing in the root nodules of G. sepium growing in seven selected locations of Polonnaruwa district, Sri Lanka. Isolated rhizobial strains were separately subjected to stress conditions (pH, temperature, salinity, and drought) and to a combination of given stress conditions. Most of the strains were tolerant to 25 - 45oC temperature range, extreme drought conditions and 1.5 % and 2.0 % salinity levels. However all the strains were adversely affected by acidic pH. Among the fifteen strains that were selected from the statistical analysis, fourteen displayed higher survival capacity when the combinations of physiological conditions were applied. There was great genetic diversity within these isolates and they belonged to 10 clusters. Cross inoculation of these isolated stress tolerant strains into crop legumes can be used as an ideal alternative for chemical nitrogen fertilizers.

Association between body mass index and estimated glomerular filtration rate in patients with chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology in Sri Lanka.

Chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology (CKDu), which is widespread in the North Central Province (NCP) of Sri Lanka, is not associated with commonly known factors such as diabetes, hypertension, and glomerulonephritis. The pathogenicity of CKDu is not well understood, but people with a low body mass index (BMI) and mineral and nutrient deficiencies are more vulnerable to develop CKDu. To understand this situation, the relationship between BMI and the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was investigated in people with CKDu in comparison with unaffected age-matched control groups in disease-endemic areas of the NCP. This community-based cross-sectional study was performed in Medirigiriya in the Polonnaruwa district of Sri Lanka, which has one of the highest densities of patients with CKDu. The data for identifying demographic factors and the relationship between CKDu and BMI were investigated by using a validated survey questionnaire. Findings indicated that the group with the highest number of people affected with CKDu (i.e. eGFR of less than 60mL/min/1.73m2) had the lowest BMI compared to those with normal eGFR. The majority affected were male farmers. The severity of the disease was inversely associated with BMI values and had a higher prevalence of smoking and alcohol consumption. In addition, those who consume water from household dug wells had significantly lower eGFR (p < 0.0001). A linear regression analysis revealed a significant positive association between lower eGFR and lower BMI (p < 0.001). We hypothesised that the low BMI in those with CKDu may have increased susceptibility to develop CKDu, in the presence of exposure to multiple nephrotoxins and adverse conditions.

Water management problems related major reservoirs and irrigation systems in Polonnaruwa District, Sri lanka

Water is a scarce resource in the dry zone of Sri Lanka and it is a major problem faced by the cultivators in the area. Since their cultivations totally depend on irrigation water every possible effort should be put in order to optimize the water usage to achieve increased crop production. Recent reports on water management activities of several irrigation schemes in the Dry Zone indicates, that the water distribution is not meeting the demands of farmers in terms of adequacy, reliability and timelines. Further it was said that there is considerable potential to increase paddy field in this system through improved irrigation water management, especially by efficient irrigation scheduling. The study intends to find out the annual statement of reservoir replenishment and behaviour is monthly analysed about reservoirs condition by Irrigation Department and recorded below data to statements for the water – year ending the month by month in orderly. It includes rainfall on catchment, area irrigated, water area, yield from catchment, issues from sluices, discharge over spills, change in reservoir storage, vapour-seepage loss, reservoir storage, depth at lowest sluice. And also this study identified above conditions and water management problems related ParakramaSamudraya, Giritale, Minneriya and Kaudulla major reservoirs in Polonnaruwa District. The greater part of the irrigated rice area is in the dry zone and the water availability there is less than that in others areas. Additionally, competition from domestic and industrial sectors will also increase. Therefore, water scarcities in the dry zone will have a severe impact on meeting the additional food requirements of the increasing population. In this respect, it is of vital importance to understand the regional scarcities of water and their impact on future food production.

A new forest vegetation type in Sri Lanka: Dry Canal-associated Evergreen Forest

During the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa (11-14th Century AD), irrigation infrastructure and agricultural development in Sri Lanka were at their zenith. Irrigation system also consisted of canals conveying water from the Mahaweli River to distant farmlands. One such irrigation canal, presently within the Somawathiya National Park (SNP), supplied water from the river to a cascade of small tanks and farmlands as far as Kalu Ganga that divides Polonnaruwa and Trincomalee Districts on the Mahaweli Left Bank. The perennial presence of water during use, and subsequent disuse of the canal for centuries, since the fall of the Kingdom, evidently has caused edaphic, hydrological, microclimatic, biological and ecological changes that seem to have transformed vegetation existed during pre-Polonnaruwa and Polonnaruwa Periods in this part of the dry zone. Along the present day ruins of this ancient irrigation canal exists a unique zone of forest vegetation which has not been hitherto identified or recorded. This special forest formation which is anthropogenic in origin is here described as a new forest vegetation type in Sri Lanka and named Dry Canal-associated Evergreen Forest (DCEF) which closely resembles a river forest (Dry Riverine Evergreen Forest (DREF)), which in contrast is a natural vegetation formation.

The incidence, prevalence and trends of Chronic Kidney Disease and Chronic Kidney Disease of uncertain aetiology (CKDu) in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka: an analysis of 30,566 patients

BackgroundChronic Kidney Disease (CKD) of uncertain origin (CKDu) has affected North Central Province (Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa districts) of Sri Lanka. The cause is still unknown. The objective of this study was to describe the incidence, prevalence and trend of CKD/CKDu in North Central Province of Sri Lanka.MethodsA cross sectional survey conducted in North Central Province with GPS mapping in CKDu highly affected areas. The diagnosis of CKD and staging were made according to the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes paper.Descriptive statistics used with chi-square test for evaluating dichotomous variables. Log rank test was used to compare survival rates. The population data was obtained from the 2011 Census.ResultsThere were 30,566 CKD/CKDu patients in the North Central Province. Incidence of 0.10 in 2009, 0.39 in 2016 in Anuradhapura district, decreased slightly to 0.29 in 2017. Incidence of 0.09 in 2009, 0.46 in 2016 in Polonnaruwa district, decreased slightly to 0.41 in 2017.The point prevalence in high incidence areas ranged from 2.44–4.35. The 5 year survival rate was 71.2 (Anuradhapura 72.4 and Polonnaruwa 68.3, p = 0.0212).More than 70, 40 and 33% of patients were over 50, 60 and 70 years of age respectively. A male preponderance was seen in all the divisional areas (ranging from 1.3:1 to 2.6:1) and in all the age groups. Farmers were the most affected (70.6% Anuradhapura district and 65.1% Polonnaruwa district). Majority in CKD stage I (4943, 69.6%).There were 1685 deaths (17.5% of total CKD/CKDu patients, 67.6% of total deaths in CKD/CKDu patients) occurring within the first 3 years of diagnosis.GPS mapping shows that there is a clustering of households with CKD/CKDu.ConclusionsThe incidence of CKD/CKDu increased up to 2016 with a slight decrease in 2017. The most vulnerable age group was 40 to 60 years. There is a male preponderance. Farmers at a higher risk. Majority were in CKD stage 1. More than two thirds of the deaths of CKD/CKDu patients occurred within three years of diagnosis with disparities in 5 year survival rate among the two districts. There is clustering of cases.

SUN-241 THE TREND IN THE INCIDENCE OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE IN THE CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE OF UNCERTAIN ORIGIN (CKDu) AFFECTED NORTH CENTRAL PROVINCE OF SRI LANKA

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) of uncertain origin (CKDu) has affected North Central Province (Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa district) of Sri Lanka. The cause is still unknown. The objective of this study was to describe the trend in the incidence of CKD/CKDu in Divisional Secretariat (DS) areas (smaller administrative units) of North Central Province (Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa districts) of Sri Lanka.

The Effect of Fertilizer Subsidy on Small-Scale Paddy Production in Sri Lanka: A Case in Hinguraggoda Divisional Secretariat Division in Polonnaruwa District

At present, the expenditure on fertilizer subsidy has become a heavy burden on the budget in Sri Lanka. The studies which attempted to analyze the impact of fertilizer subsidy on the productivity of paddy farming also provide rather mixed results. Thus, the present study aims to identify the effects of government fertilizer subsidy policy on the productivity of small-scale paddy farming in Sri Lanka by employing the econometric model developed by Hu and Antle (1993). The primary data for the study were drawn from a field survey conducted in the Hinguraggoda Divisinal Secretariat division in Polonnaruwa district. The results revealed that fertilizer subsidy has a positive impact on the productivity of paddy farming, but with decidedly less responsiveness (highly inelastic) indicating the need for agricultural policy priorities to enhance the positive responsiveness of fertilizer subsidy on farm productivity. The results further revealed a positive relationship between the level of farmer education and the productivity of a paddy farm. The study suggests the need of farm-level experiments (soil analysis, technological adaptations, water management techniques, type of adaptable paddy varieties, and extension inputs) to enhance the positive responsiveness of fertilizer subsidy policy on small-scale paddy farm productivity in Sri Lanka.

Traditional Uses of Medicinal Plants in Polonnaruwa District in North Central Province of Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka harbors over 3000 plant species, and most of these plants have been of immense importance in the traditional systems of medicine in the country. Although there is a rich reserve of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants, in-depth studies have not been pursued yet to compile the ethnoflora with traditional medicinal applications for the scientific community. Thus, as a continuation of our ethnobotanical inventory work in different regions in the country, the present study was carried out in one of the administrative districts in the North Central area of Sri Lanka known as Polonnaruwa district. The information on the significance of medicinal plants as curative and preventive agents of diseases was collected through semistructured and open-ended interviews from 284 volunteers who were randomly recruited for the study. Ethnobotanical data were analyzed using relative frequency of citation (RFC), family importance value (FIV), and use value (UV). Out of the total participants, 53.7% claimed the use of herbal remedies. A total of 64 medicinal plants belonging to 42 plant families were recorded, out of which Coriandrum sativum L. (RFC = 0.163) was the most cited species. Out of the 42 plant families recorded, the FIV was highest in Zingiberaceae. Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. was found as the plant with the highest use value. Furthermore, the majority of the nonusers of the herbal remedies were willing to adopt herbal products upon the scientific validation of their therapeutic potential. This study revealed that the indigenous herbal remedies are still popular among the local communities in the study area.

THE EFFECT OF FERTILIZER SUBSIDY ON PADDY PRODUCTION OF SMALL SCALE FARMERS: SPECIAL REFERENCE IN POLONNARUWA DISTRICTIN SRI LANKA

Paddy cultivation is major part in rural agriculture sector in Sri Lanka. Majority of rural sector paddy farmers are small-scale producers. According to available data paddy production sector provides livelihood opportunities for large numbers of rural population, provide rice requirement of the nation, provide inputs to other industrial sector etc.To enhance small-scale farmers living condition as well as paddy production, Sri Lankan government promotes paddy farmers to use more fertilizer for their paddy cultivation activities. Therefore, Sri Lankan government provides subsidized fertilizer to enhance both paddy production and paddy yield per acre. Last few decades paddy production and paddy yield per acre data show continues increasing trend. At the same time government expenditure on fertilizer also becomes heavy burden to national budget. There are arguments for and against to fertilizer subsidy program and its practice. This study attempts to study the effect of fertilizer subsidy on paddy production and living condition of small-scale farmers in Polonnaruwa district in Sri Lanka. The data are used to estimate an econometric model to find the relationship between paddy productivity, fertilizer subsidy, agricultural infrastructure facilities and farmers education level. The data were collected from Bubula and Raja-elagama villages in Higurakgoda divisional secretariat in Polonnaruwa district. Structured questioner was used to collect the data from 150 farmers. The results show that there is significant relationship between paddy production and dependent variables named fertilizer subsidy, agricultural infrastructure facilities and farmers education level. Especially fertilizer subsidy and paddy productivity is significant at 5 per cent level and R2 was 0.68. This result shows that government main objective of fertilizer subsidy that improves paddy productivity has been fulfilled. At the same time, household income from paddy has also increased and it has affected their livelihoods. But poor agricultural infrastructural facilities have mitigated farmers’ income. Research results and some empirical evidence have concluded that it is important to find alternative methods to select suitable and needy farmers who are eligible to get fertilizer subsidy because conducting methods of distributing have made many kinds of effects on the efficiency of resource utilization, equity of income distribution as well as government budget. Agricultural infrastructure facilities are very important for making fertilizer subsidy programs more meaningful and to have a significant effect on enhancing paddy farmers’ living conditions.

Epidemiological survey of Anaplasma marginale in cattle and buffalo in Sri Lanka.

Bovine anaplasmosis caused by Anaplasma marginale represents a serious threat to cattle farming worldwide, especially in the tropics and subtropics. In the present study, archived DNA samples from the blood of cattle (n=437) in the Nuwara Eliya, Galle, Ampara, Polonnaruwa, and Jaffna districts and buffalo (n=327) in the Galle, Polonnaruwa, Mannar, and Mullaitivu districts in Sri Lanka, were screened for A. marginale using a major surface protein 5 (msp5) gene-based PCR assay. The findings showed that 32.7 and 57.5% of cattle and buffalo, respectively, were A. marginale-positive. The rate of positivity differed significantly among geographical regions. In conclusion, the high rates of A. marginale infection in cattle and buffalo highlight the importance of effective control measures in Sri Lanka.

Identification of cyanobacteria inhabiting paddy fields in intermediate zone and dry zone of Sri Lanka

Cyanobacteria have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen to plant available forms; thus, useful in producing bio-fertilizers especially for rice cultivation. In this study, cyanobacteria were isolated from soil samples collected from 23 paddy fields in Kurunegala, Matale, Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Districts under IL1, IM3, DL1b and DL1c agro ecological regions, respectively. Soil pH, EC, active C and exchangeable K contents varied considerably among soils from four regions. Culturable cyanobacteria were isolated using Blue Green medium (pH 7) and thirteen isolates were tentatively identified based on morphological characteristics. Oscillatoria was the most common cyanobacteria among sampling sites in IL1, IM3 and DL1c agro ecological regions. Microsystis was the most prevalent unicellular group in IL1 and DL1c agro ecological regions. In DL1b, unicellular Aphanocapsa was commonly found followed by filamentous Pseudanabaena and Oscillatoria. From this research thirteen axenic cultures were established for further studies. The diversity of cyanobacteria was high in the regions with high diversity of paddy cultivated environments.