Marine Pollution Research Articles

Characterizing persistent organic pollutants in seawater at a multifunctional international harbor influenced by industrial riverbank activities.

The objective of this study is to comprehensively characterize persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in seawater at Kaohsiung Harbor, focusing on their concentrations, partitioning behaviors, and profiles in both particle and liquid phases. We analyzed 100L seawater for each sample, finding total dioxin-like toxicity (PCDD/Fs+PCBs + PBDD/Fs) ranging from 0.00936 to 0.167pg WHO-TEQ/L, with PCDD/Fs accounting for 68% of total toxicity. POPs predominantly appeared in the particle phase, observed in over 80% of samples, except for PCBs. The observed correlations between particulate matter (PM) and chlorinated POPs at sites receiving river effluents suggest shared pollution sources. The liquid partition of PCDD/Fs, PCBs, and PBDEs in the seawater shows an inverse relationship with log Kow and a direct proportionality with solubility, particularly above 0.1μg/L. Furthermore, PBDEs in seawater can transform into PBDD/Fs upon UV light exposure, highlighting another potential pathway for the persistence and spread of these harmful contaminants in the environment. These findings emphasize the need for field-based investigations to assess PBDF formation in aquatic environments and underscore the importance of stronger mitigation strategies, including better wastewater treatment and stricter discharge regulations to reduce POPs in marine ecosystems.

Export of macro plastics over a tidal cycle by through small urban rivers in the Amazon

Plastic pollution in rivers has increased over the years and contributes to the pollution of the oceans. But knowledge of macroplastic flows in small, tidal-influenced urban rivers in the Amazon is still unclear, mainly due to a lack of understanding of the processes that control transport in rivers. Here, we provide the first estimate of the floating macroplastic flows in two tidally influenced urban rivers, based on continuous observations over a 12-h period. This period includes a tidal cycle (high and low tide), and the observation took place from a fixed bridge located on both rivers. A total of 8682 items of solid waste were observed in urban rivers, of which 80% were plastic. We found a bidirectional transport of waste throughout the tidal cycle, with maximum amounts of -198.5 items.hour-1 during high tide and 498.6 items.hour-1 during low tide. The largest quantities (1046.89) of items occurred during the ebb tide. These rivers in an Amazonian metropolis can contribute around 25.84kg of macroplastic items per day. The results demonstrate the importance of tidal dynamics in the transport of waste in Amazonian rivers and indicate that urban rivers act as plastic exporters in the region.

Differences in mercury (THg) levels in Brown booby (Sula leucogaster) feathers from two environmentally distinct Brazilian archipelagos

Mercury pollution is a matter of global concern due to its detrimental effects on ecosystems and human well-being. Seabirds generally occupy high levels within trophic chains and are often used as valuable indicators of marine pollution, including mercury contamination. We examined the concentrations of total mercury (THg) in the ventral feathers of Brown boobies (Sula leucogaster) from two distinct Brazilian archipelagos: one coastal and subtropical (Moleques do Sul) and one tropical and oceanic (São Pedro and São Paulo). We hypothesized that there would be differentiation in mercury levels between these archipelagos due to differences in geographical location and environmental conditions, where higher Hg levels would be found in Brown boobies from the coastal one since they are more exposed to anthropogenic sources from the continent. Additionally, we also investigated whether there were any differences in mercury levels based on sex and age. We found significantly higher THg levels in Brown boobies from São Pedro and São Paulo compared to those from Moleques do Sul, indicating differential levels of exposure to mercury sources. No significant differences between sexes or age classes, although juvenile individuals showed the lowest values. We suggest that the THg higher levels found in individuals from São Pedro e São Paulo can be due to the geological peculiarities of this archipelago, formed by mantle peridotites considered mercury hotspots. Our findings emphasize the importance of considering spatial and environmental factors in mercury biomonitoring and highlight the potential use of seabird feathers as a proxy for mercury contamination in marine environments.

Declines in coastal macrozooplankton communities within a recent climate and ocean tipping point in the Tropical South Atlantic

This study investigated whether variations in climate and ocean drivers on global, regional, and local scales affected macrozooplankton communities in a coastal protected area in Tamandaré Bay (northeastern Brazil). For this purpose, bimonthly field campaigns were carried out from June 2013 to August 2019. A significant tipping point (point of change, p < 0.001), with an abrupt increase in SST, was detected in the TSA (Tropical South Atlantic) index. This indicates the existence of a climate regime shift in the Tropical South Atlantic during the 2015/16 El Niño (EN) event. Extreme rainfall events were observed in Tamandaré Bay after this EN event, in 2017, 2018, and in 2019 (and more recently, in 2022). This extreme rainfall led to low-salinity events, increased variability in salinity, and significantly lower abundances in the period after the strong EN event, for socioeconomically relevant penaeid shrimp postlarvae and several other zooplankton groups (e.g., copepods, appendicularians, anomuran hermit crab larvae, and chaetognaths). We found a significant relationship between SSTs in the TSA region and penaeid shrimp recruitment in the study area, located leewards of the TSA index area. The decline in shrimp postlarvae and other macrozooplankton may be due to a combination of factors, such as climate and ocean shifts (atmospheric easterly waves disturbances, winds, precipitation, salinity) and possibly increasing marine pollution (related to extreme rainfall events, that convey macro- and microplastics, and pollutants from the continent). Cnidarian medusae and fish eggs were among the few “winners” of this ecosystem regime shift. Changes in climate, ocean, macrozooplankton, and shrimp postlarvae abundance evidence a relevant climate, ocean and ecosystem regime shift in this region with a tipping point during 2015/16 “Godzilla” El Niño. Possible future consequences in the context of persistent warming in the TSA region and the currently ongoing record strength 2023/24 EN event are discussed.

Synthesis of Renewable and Seawater-degradable Polyesters Based on a Fully Biobased Diester

The design and development of biobased plastics that can degrade in seawater is a potential approach to address the seawater pollution of fossil plastics. Herein, N,N'-pentamethylene-bis(pyrrolidone-4-methyl carboxylate) (PBPC), a biobased diester with two pyrrolidone rings, was synthesized from renewable 1,5-pentanediamine and dimethyl itaconate. PBPC was polymerized with three α,ω-diols to prepare biobased homopolyesters with number-average molecular weight (Mn) around 25 kDa. These amorphous homopolyesters presented remarkable UV shielding abilities compared with poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly(butylene succinate) (PBS). Incubation experiments in artificial seawater for 150 days indicated that the homopolyesters based on PBPC exhibited rapid seawater-degradability. Then, PBPC was copolymerized with 1,4-butanediol and terephthalic acid to prepare a series of copolyesters with Mn around 20 kDa. The introduction of PBPC into poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) resulted in the elevated toughness and sensitivity to seawater degradation. Depending on the composition of PBPC, the thermal, mechanical, and degradation rate of the copolyesters were adjustable. Overall, the PBPC-based polyesters are promising alternatives to commercial packaging materials in improving the renewability of raw materials and achieving seawater degradation.

Enhancing Wildlife Preservation through Animal Recognition

Recent years, we have seen growing public interest in wildlife conservation, with increasing emphasis on animal rights and welfare. While wildlife welfare aligns with reasonable and legal utilization of wildlife, it is crucial to distinguish it from broader animal rights concepts. This review addresses critical issues related to wildlife extinction, endangerment, and conservation efforts on both national and international levels. We have provided a key strategy include habitat conservation, combating deforestation, regulating pet trades, and addressing marine pollution through legislation. Notable recent projects have focused on habitat restoration, anti-poaching measures, and species-specific conservation initiatives. This impact of human activities on wildlife and ecosystems has highlighted the need for comprehensive approaches to safeguard biodiversity. This paper evaluates current conservation efforts, emphasizing the importance of integrating innovative solutions with traditional practices to effectively address the ongoing challenges in wildlife protection.

Smart Monitoring Method for Land-Based Sources of Marine Outfalls Based on an Improved YOLOv8 Model

Land-based sources of marine outfalls are a major source of marine pollution. The monitoring of land-based sources of marine outfalls is an important means for marine environmental protection and governance. Traditional on-site manual monitoring methods are inefficient, expensive, and constrained by geographic conditions. Satellite remote sensing spectral analysis methods can only identify pollutant plumes and are affected by discharge timing and cloud/fog interference. Therefore, we propose a smart monitoring method for land-based sources of marine outfalls based on an improved YOLOv8 model, using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). This method can accurately identify and classify marine outfalls, offering high practical application value. Inspired by the sparse sampling method in compressed sensing, we incorporated a multi-scale dilated attention mechanism into the model and integrated dynamic snake convolutions into the C2f module. This approach enhanced the model’s detection capability for occluded and complex-feature targets while constraining the increase in computational load. Additionally, we proposed a new loss calculation method by combining Inner-IoU (Intersection over Union) and MPDIoU (IoU with Minimum Points Distance), which further improved the model’s regression speed and its ability to predict multi-scale targets. The final experimental results show that the improved model achieved an mAP50 (mean Average Precision at 50) of 87.0%, representing a 3.4% increase from the original model, effectively enabling the smart monitoring of land-based marine discharge outlets.

Environmental and Cost Assessments of Marine Alternative Fuels for Fully Autonomous Short-Sea Shipping Vessels Based on the Global Warming Potential Approach

This research paper presents an effective approach to reducing marine pollution and costs by determining the optimal marine alternative fuels framework for short-sea shipping vessels, with a focus on energy efficiency. Employing mathematical models in a Python environment, the analyses are tailored specifically for conventional and fully autonomous high-speed passenger ferries (HSPFs) and tugboats, utilizing bottom-up methodologies, ship operating phases, and the global warming potential approach. The study aims to identify the optimal marine fuel that offers the highest Net Present Value (NPV) and minimal emissions, aligning with International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations and environmental objectives. Data from the ship’s Automatic Identification System (AIS), along with specifications and port information, were integrated to assess power, energy, and fuel consumption, incorporating parameters of proposed marine alternative fuels. This study examines key performance indicators (KPIs) for marine alternative fuels used in both conventional and autonomous vessels, specifically analyzing total mass emission rate (TMER), total global warming potential (TGWP), total environmental impact (TEI), total environmental damage cost (TEDC), and NPV. The results show that hydrogen (H2-Ren, H2-F) fuels and electric options produce zero emissions, while traditional fuels like HFO and MDO exhibit the highest TMER. Sensitivity and stochastic analyses identify critical input variables affecting NPV, such as fuel costs, emission costs, and vessel speed. Findings indicate that LNG consistently yields the highest NPV, particularly for autonomous vessels, suggesting economic advantages and reduced emissions. These insights are crucial for optimizing fuel selection and operational strategies in marine transportation and offer valuable guidance for decision-making and investment in the marine sector, ensuring regulatory compliance and environmental sustainability.

Capillary Skimming of Floating Microplastics via a Water-Bridged Ratchet.

Floating microplastics (MPs) have recently become a major concern in marine pollution; however, current filter-based technology is hardly effective for directly removing such MPs from the water surface because of specific mesh size and clogging issues. This paper introduces a new skimming concept for removing floating MPs utilizing capillary force mediated by the elevation of a hydrophilic ratchet at the air-water interface. MPs floating near the ratchet surface are spontaneously forced toward the ratchet with a concave water meniscus, driven by the Cheerios effect. The MPs can then be skimmed and temporarily held by the deforming concave water meniscus as the ratchet rises. Here, it is found that the stability of the water bridge plays a crucial role in skimming success because it provides capillary adhesion between the MP and the ratchet. The proposed capillary skimming method is observed to be effective across nearly all types of floating MPs, ranging in size from 1 to 4 mm, and with densities varying from 0.02 to 0.97 gcm- 3, which is also demonstrated by a prototype of marine robot cleaner.

Migration patterns, habitat use and genetic origins of sea trout (Salmo trutta) in Norfolk chalk streams: implications for management of a mixed stock fishery

Sea trout, the anadromous ecotype of the species Salmo trutta, are subject to multiple threats, including exploitation and aquaculture impacts in the marine environment, habitat fragmentation and pollution in freshwaters, loss of genetic resilience due to interbreeding with hatchery strains and environmental change. Small streams contribute relatively little biomass to European sea trout stocks but are thought to be important in maintaining genetic diversity and therefore wider population resilience. The current study combined data from acoustic telemetry, stable isotopes, genetics and scalimetry to assess the current status of sea trout in the rivers Stiffkey and Glaven, two locally important chalkstreams in East Anglia, UK, to provide an evidence base for future management. The incidence of anadromy was low, and most sea trout were near migrants, residing in the lower reaches of rivers and close to the tidal outfalls. A small number migrated to the North Sea where they were vulnerable to exploitation in the coastal fishery, which comprises a mixed stock. Straying between the two rivers was recorded among 10% of sea trout, leading to apparent high gene flow. Nonetheless, genetic data also demonstrated structuring of River Glaven trout into two distinct groups. Quantification of patterns of freshwater and estuarine habitat use, and of passage at cross-channel obstructions, was used to identify where remedial measures such as habitat restoration would be most effectively targeted. Findings are discussed in the context of local supplementary stocking and the potential impact of the nearshore fishery on limited and vulnerable small stream anadromous trout populations.

Environmental Contaminants in Fish Products: Food Safety Issues and Remediation Strategies.

The intentional or accidental presence of environmental contaminants, such as persistent organic pollutants, metals, and microplastics, can harm the aquatic ecosystem and their living organisms, as well as consumers of seafood. This study provides an overview of marine pollution caused by various chemicals and their toxicity to both the environment and humans. In addition to regulatory limits established for some contaminants, monitoring and management policies should mandate activities such as bioremediation and the use of carbon-based composite photocatalysts to reduce or eliminate these compounds.

Navigating the Waves of Change—Assessing the Evolving Landscape of China’s Revised Marine Environmental Protection Law

Since its inception in 1982, the Marine Environmental Protection Law (MEPL) has undergone several revisions in 1999, 2013, 2016, and 2017, capping in the inclusive overhaul of 2023. These successive revisions have gradually shaped a robust legal system encompassing the Constitution as the foundational basis, the MEPL as the core regulatory instrument, and several corresponding laws safeguarding specific marine elements as the driving force. The newly revised MEPL 2023, compared to its previous iterations, introduces significant improvements that are largely reflected in strengthening the protection of marine biodiversity conservation, advancing the prevention and control of ship-source marine pollution, optimising the supervision of the marine environment, enhancing the prevention and control of land-based marine pollution, and imposing stricter liabilities. This paper examines how the new MEPL 2023 improves China’s marine environmental protection, and incorporates international best practices within the legal framework. Additionally, the research explores potential areas for further development that provide some implications for policymakers and should have been considered.

The Legal Regime of the Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction in the BBNJ Agreement and Lessons Learned for Space Law

As a result of the discussions on ocean pollution in recent years, the ‘Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction’ (also known as the BBNJ Agreement) was signed on 4 March 2023. One of the most notable aspects of the Agreement in question is that it imposes certain responsibilities on states in a region that are not subject to the sovereignty of any state, while states may extend their jurisdictional authority to these regions only in the case of certain exceptions such as registration.This development can serve as a significant illustrative record of the interaction between environmental protection and state accountability in places like Antarctica or outer space, which are also not under state jurisdiction. This study addresses the lessons learned from the BBNJ Agreement for the environmental protection of outer space by examining benefit-sharing mechanisms, area management tools, and environmental impact assessment in the BBNJ Agreement and makes suggestions on how to strengthen the protection of the space environment through these mechanisms.

Human exposure to heavy metals and possible public health risks via consumption of mussels M. galloprovincialis from the Albanian sea cost

Heavy metals in the marine environment are significant contaminants that readily bioaccumulate in the tissues of aquatic organisms, particularly in filter-feeding animals such as bivalve molluscs. Human exposure to elevated concentrations of heavy metals, including essential elements such as Fe, Cu, and Zn, through the consumption of seafood can lead to various pathological effects. Research has demonstrated that among bivalve molluscs, mussels are the most effective indicators for monitoring marine pollution. Consequently, this study focused on the species Mytilus galloprovincialis to evaluate the levels of Al, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the two primary harvesting areas of Albania and to assess the associated human health risks from mussel consumption. The results revealed a concerning situation, particularly for Pb and Cd, with average concentrations of 2.15 μg/g and 4.14 μg/g, respectively, significantly exceeding the limits established by Regulation (EC) No. 915/2023. The levels of the other investigated elements also raised concerns, as only half of them were within the dietary intake values recommended by scientific authorities for weekly consumption of 250 g of mussels.

Design and modeling of an eco-friendly anchored fish aggregating device with artificial reef subjected to wave and current

Anchored fish aggregating devices (AFADs) and artificial reefs play a vital role in enhancing marine biomass and biodiversity for marine ecosystem restoration. Improving the coastal ecosystem remains a significant challenge worldwide. However, AFADs are highly vulnerable to damage under marine conditions, which can lead to significant marine pollution. An AFAD, in which an artificial reef is applied as the anchor, is designed to enhance the efficiency of marine ecosystem restoration. This system consists of a biodegradable raft, cotton rope, and concrete artificial reef. Numerical modeling is conducted to simulate the hydrodynamic performance of the AFAD based on an unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes approach with a realizable k–ε turbulence model. Wave forcing based on the Euler overlay method is applied for wave dissipation, followed by theoretical verification. The effects of wave parameters, relative raft length, rope length, raft diameter, and sinker weight on the motion response amplitude operators and relative rope tension are considered. The results show that the wave parameter has a significant effect on the hydrodynamic performance of the AFAD. With a relative raft diameter of 0.6, relative rope length of 2.6–2.8, and relative sinker weight of 0.8, the motion response amplitude operators and relative rope tension are minimized. The proposed AFAD can provide a stable three-dimensional zone to efficiently enhance the aggregation of marine species.

Assessment of microplastic characterization and distribution from surface water and the seabed in the Flores Sea, Indonesia

Despite growing global concerns, there has been limited research on the characterization and distribution of microplastics in the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF) pathways, such as the Flores Sea. The Flores Sea is a component of the Indian–Pacific Current, a significant ocean current system that links the Pacific and Indian oceans and has the capacity to carry pollution over large marine ecosystems, making this research extremely important. Understanding the microplastic pollution in this area informs local environmental management. It provides insights into how these currents may distribute microplastics (MPs) across regional and global scales, impacting marine life and human health far beyond the immediate area. To respond to these concerns, this research aims to determine the characterization and distribution of MPs at six research sites in the Flores Sea that are precisely located within the ITF. This work exhibits an extensive dataset focusing on the occurrence, attributes, and dispersion of microplastics in the Flores Sea. The water sampling was carried out during a Jala Citra 3 by the Indonesian Navy from April to May 2023. Sea surface water samples were collected using a Neuston net, while sediment samples were taken from three stations at the shallowest depth using the Ekman Grab sampler. Additionally, abundance, size, shape, and color analyses were conducted using a light microscope, and microplastic types were identified through Raman spectroscopy. The results indicated that the Flores Sea waters and sediment are polluted with microplastics, with relative abundances ranging from 0.75 ± 0.49 to 2.13 ± 0.25 items/l samples. The most dominant shapes identified were filament (77.45%) and fragment (13.40%), with sizes varying between surface water 4.70 to 3799.25 μm and seabed from 67.20 mm to 2176.87 mm, while black (30.07%) and blue (24.51%) were reported as the common MPs colors. The identified polymers include PET and PE. This study confirms visual evidence of microplastics in the open waters of eastern Indonesia. While it may not fully capture the wide range of temporal variations, it establishes initial microplastic presence and dispersion levels. Given that the ITF influences both the Pacific and Indian Oceans, this research contributes to the global understanding of microplastic distribution across ocean basins, underscoring the need for coordinated international efforts to address marine pollution.

Environmental legislation analysis improvement approach of global marine plastic pollution from the perspective of holistic system view

Marine plastic pollution (MPP) has posed an unavoidable challenge to the conservation of marine ecosystems, escalating at an unprecedented rate. It extends beyond visible pollution, infiltrating the food chain and microcirculation, ultimately affecting the life and health of marine organisms. Of even greater concern is the fact that MPP has been found to penetrate human bloodstreams. The international community increasingly focuses on MPP, and has formulated a series of laws and regulations. This article analyses marine pollution prevention legislation within the context of international environmental resolutions and conventions, including those established by the United Nations, the European Union law and the domestic legislation of sovereign states. It is evident that the current legislation has played a pivotal role in the preventing MPP. However, global legislation on preventing MPP remains fragmented. The problems existing in the current legislation should be reviewed from the holistic systems perspective, and the integrity and systematicness of new plastics convention should be demonstrated. The proposed Marine Plastics Convention should emphasize environmental justice, protect the rights of vulnerable populations, lower the threshold for risk prevention, and focus on addressing residual risks. It must include clear provisions for regulating hydrosphere plastic pollution (HPP) to mitigate land-based pollution and scientifically define fundamental legal concepts to foster coordinated action among States. Moreover, the convention should establish standardized monitoring methodologies and assessment criteria to ensure accurate evaluation of the pollution status.

New Insights into Fish Diversity in the Yellow and Bohai Seas Based on Environmental DNA Technology

Marine biodiversity is increasingly threatened by overfishing and marine pollution. A comprehensive understanding of the biodiversity in the Yellow and Bohai Seas is essential for resource conservation. This study conducted a large-scale survey of fishery resources in the Yellow and Bohai Seas to investigate fish community structure and diversity using eDNA technology. The results showed that 57 and 65 fish species were recorded in spring and summer, respectively, with 46 species identified in both seasons. A total of nine dominant species were identified in spring, mainly belonging to Perciformes, while seven dominant species were identified in summer, primarily from Clupeiformes. In different regions, no significant differences in fish α diversity were observed between spring and summer. However, significant seasonal differences were found in both α and β diversity. At the spatial level, fish species in the Yellow and Bohai Seas occupied similar ecological niches. However, at the temporal level, there are certain differences in the ecological niches of fish communities between seasons. Phylogenetic diversity showed no significant differences at the spatial scale, yet notable seasonal variations were observed at the temporal scale, with spring (661.46) significantly exceeding summer (540.30). The Mantel test indicated that nitrate and salinity were key environmental factors influencing α diversity. RDA analysis revealed that the dominant species in spring were mainly influenced by chlorophyll-a and water temperature, while those in summer were mainly affected by water depth, nitrite, water temperature, and salinity.

Recommendations and challenges for the regulations of ghost fishing gears

ABSTRACT Approximately 80% of goods are transported by shipping all over the world. Shipping plays an indispensable role in international transportation, as it is the most effective method. However, marine pollution from ships, such as accidental or operational discharge, is a recognised contributor to the worsening marine environment and ecosystem. It is known that approximately 27% of plastic pollution originates from marine-based sources. Shipping is a major contributor to marine plastics through fishing gear and container losses as well as recreational boating and passenger ships, among others. Given the statistics, this study proposes future regulatory recommendations for mitigating marine plastic pollution from ships. The uniqueness of this research lies in its emphasis on regulatory analysis specific to ship-source plastic pollution, which differs from the usual focus on land-based origins. Ultimately, the study seeks to heighten public awareness regarding the urgency of implementing regulatory measures. The research suggests the strengthening of enforcement regime over vessels, advocating for revisions to Annex V of the MARPOL 73/78 Convention, and enhancing collaboration between the IMO and the FAO.

How regenerated cellulose fibers appear in the discourse on marine pollution with microplastic: a snowballing and network approach

Abstract Microplastics are prominent marine pollutants that have been investigated in various recent studies. While some of these studies mention regenerated cellulose fibers (RCFs), as part of microplastics or in close connection, other studies consider RCFs to be biodegradable by their nature and hence neglectable in context of marine pollution. This systematic literature review on the biodegradability of RCFs was conducted to investigate how such differences can be explained. An innovative snowballing-network approach has been applied for the review to gain a better understanding of historical developments of and interconnections between according strains of literature. Starting from four different papers the review fol-lowed according references and citations.&amp;#xD;Results indicate that a consensus is lacking across research fields on the chemical character-istics of RCFs. The inconsistent use of existing terminology by some researchers, and fail-ure to make distinctions between RCFs and synthetic fibers or plastics in the results may lead to misinterpretation regarding the impacts of RCFs in the environment.&amp;#xD;By using more accurately the existing terms and definitions, researchers could prevent read-ers from misinterpreting research results and increase their understanding of RCFs.&amp;#xD;Biodegradation of regenerated cellulose fibers was reviewed, and consensus is that these fibers are biodegradable in all natural environments and suitable industrial settings. Con-ducting further research on the fate of RCFs and other cellulose fibers from processed con-sumer products like textiles, as well as microfibers from textiles in general, in natural envi-ronments are recommended.