Political Treaties Research Articles

Colonial Missions To Africa: A Case Study of China's Secret Mission And New Policy In Africa

The 19th and 20th centuries have been for European missions to Africa. The main goal of the European missions to Africa was to civilize and exploit the Africans in their own territories because they needed the resources of Africa. This paper demonstrates that the 21st century is also a century for China to invade and re-colonize Africa through a new policy of loans, aid, assistance, technology, cultural exchange and the signing of colonial pacts such as the secret socio-economic and political treaties. Through a historical perspective based on the comparison, the study reveals that China has the same purposes and intentions as the Europeans when coming to Africa because China is not a friend of Africa. China does not love Africa, but its secret mission is to corrupt African leaders through loans and grants by bringing little assistance in order to rob Africa's raw materials and take over the land.

Trend Evaluation of Venture Capital Investment in Mainland Chinas Semiconductor Industry

As chips become more prevalent in daily life, many countries understand that in order to become self-sufficient, they must build their own semiconductor supply chains. China, a country that has stalled behind in developing chips, is also aware of this. To this end, the government started vigorously promoting investments in semiconductors, turning them into popular business opportunities. Venture capitalists (VC), who typically prefer high risks but greater returns, are responsible for the greatest growth. They think that even though politics and technology have placed restrictions on the industry, there is still room for growth in the semiconductor market. This paper breaks down the recent trends in the semiconductor industry of mainland China, with a particular focus on sensitive points such as political treaties and social phenomena. According to results, the mainland semiconductor industry merits attention and has a promising future. Venture capitalists should look for companies with the following characteristics: highly educated and experienced employees, the ability to design chips independently, and a stable supply chain.

The legal vow, the oath and the treaty in the political and legal everyday life of the East Slavic state formations of the X‒XIV centuries

The research is devoted to the problems of law-making treaties and the breadth of their distribution in the East Slavic state formations of the X‒XIV centuries. The need to study the terms vow and oath is related to the peculiarities of their own Old Rus terminology, where the words denoting the vow (swearing, “khrestne ciluvannya»), oath («rota», «khodyty do roty») and treaty (“ryad”, “ryad polojiti”) are used on the meaning of the same phenomena. By swearing an oath on the terms of the treaty. Therefore, all three terms should be used, although in general it is a single phenomenon. The most studied among all law-making treaties of East Slavic state formations of the X‒XIV centuries. there are international treaties that make up a large array of both original texts and their copies, extracts from treaty texts, as well as mentions of such treaties in chronicles. About 200 treaties are known, of which several dozen have remained more or less complete. A separate independent group among international treaties are peace treaties, both because of their content and in the fact that these treaties are almost impossible to divide into international and inter-princely. Another large and fairly well-studied group of law-making treaties are interprincely treaties. The division of groups of international and inter-princely treaties is partly extremely diffi cult, as their individual varieties are almost identical. Exclusively among the inter-princely should include: a) treaties, the rules of which were of all-Rus (or common to the principality) meaning, establishing universally binding rules (common name at the time ‒ «na ustruyeniye mira») and b) treaties, which enshrined the terms of princely rule. Territorially, inter-princely treaties were spread in all areas of East Slavic state formations of the X‒XIV centuries, both during the reign of the Rurikoviches and during the reign of the fi rst Gedeminovichs. It should be noted that international treaties are usually referred to in the sources as treaties (“ryad”), and inter-princely treaties are more based on the oaths that binded their conclusion («khrestne ciluvannya», «rota»). Therefore, in historical science, they received another name ‒ «Khrestociluval’ni gramoty». Two large blocks of treaties are the treaties of princes with their subjects. A distinction should be made between the political treaties of princes and the “viche”, which embodied the opinion of society and was its representative (the so-called treaties of princes with the people) and the treaties of princes with their servants (so-called free servants, “slugi volnyye”) and boyars. The latter category of treaties is a kind of vassal treaty, but they had many diff erences from such an institution in Western Europe. Both types of treaties are usually mentioned in the sources as oaths, although several fulltext records of princes with the “viche” survived, and for treaties with boyars, the sources themselves know that the reason for dismissal of the boyar could be a breach of treaty by the prince. The least studied among the law-making treaties are vassal treaties and treaties of personal dependence, in which the suzerains were free people and aristocrats. Similarly, intra-family and inter-family contracts have been little studied, although their existence is known from sources. In both cases, the limited subject matter is due to the extremely small source base: although more than a thousand birch-bark manuscripts have been found in the last 70 years, the number of private documents found remains insignifi cant. It is concluded that the complex cellular structure of East Slavic society, where each cell was the smallest social unit. In such a society, vertical connections are very weak and horizontal ones are complex. The cells of this cellular structure do not have hard walls and a person can belong to several neighboring cells. The closets themselves are attracted to each other on the basis of contractual relations. It is noted that this model of society has much in common with the so-called Catalan pactism (pactisme). Key words: East Slavic, Kyivan Rus, Old Rus, Medieval Law, Old Rus Law, Treaty, Legal Oath, International treaty, Source of Law, state formations, Legal history.

HİTİT METİNLERİNDE LÚAPIN.LÁ ÜZERİNE BİR DEĞERLENDİRME

İnsanoğlu avcılık ve toplayıcılık ile başladığı besin hayatına, Neolitik dönemden itibaren tarımı eklemiştir. Zaman içerisinde gelişen tarım, birçok toplumun temel geçim kaynağı olmuştur. Tarımsal faaliyetlerinde tecrübelenen toplumlar, besin üretimine dayalı bir ekonomik modelin ortaya çıkıp gelişmesinin önünü açmıştır. Bu yeni ekonomik model, yerleşik hayat kavramını toplumlara aşılayan temel unsur olmuştur. MÖ. 2. binyıl Anadolu’sunun büyük bir siyasi gücü olan Hitit ülkesi, diğer toplumlar gibi tarıma büyük bir önem vermiştir. Hititçe metinlerde, ekip biçme işlemini gerçekleştiren çiftçiler, LÚAPIN.LÁ Sumerogramı ile anılmaktadır. Hitit Anadolu’sunun topraklarının ekilip biçilmesini sağlayan çiftçilerin ilk görevleri, elde ettikleri ürünleri insanlardan önce ve tam zamanında tanrılara sunmaktır. Bu konuyla ilgili uyarılan ve aksi bir durumda cezalandırılacakları belirtilen çiftçiler, siyasi antlaşma metinlerinde diğer kaçak kimselerden farklı olarak “işi teslim etme” olgusu çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir. Belgelerde, tahıl ambarlarının sorumluları olarak da karşımıza çıkan çiftçilerin, ekip biçme ve ürünü teslim etme işlemleri esnasında yalan söylemesi durumunda cezalandırılacağını görmekteyiz. Tarımsal faaliyetlerinin yanında, kimi zaman hayvanların tedarik ve muhafaza edilmesi işlerini yerine getiren çiftçiler, farklı görev ve fonksiyonları ile Hitit ekonomisinin en önemli bileşenlerinden birisi olmuştur.

Трансформація американсько-тайського альянсу у постбіполярний період

This paper intends to describe and discuss major transformations in the U.S.-Thai military and political treaty alliance of 1954 and 1962 durіng the post-Cold War period. The author seeks to reveal milestones in the U.S.-Thai political relations, and the most important factors that affected their defense and security cooperation. Methodology. These transformations are studied at the background of shifts in the international environment and the U. S. foreign policy, Thai domestic developments, and regional processes in Asia Pacific. In this empirical qualitative research, the methods of critical analysis of primary and secondary sources, chronological and comparative approaches are applied. Conclusions. The research has revealed that in the new international environment of 1990s, the tasks of the U.S.-Thai treaty alliance were changed. It was reoriented towards transnational security threats, mostly drugs traffic and terrorism, humanitarian assistance in the case of natural disasters, preparations for peacekeeping operations, et cetera. 2001–2004, when Thai government supported the U.S.-led war on terror, was the most fruitful period of the U.S.-Thai cooperation during the post-Cold war period. Simultaneously, from the very end of Indochina wars Thailand attempted to evade overdependence on the United States in the security area, and sought to balance American influence. Development of close Thailand-China ties served the purpose. The special relations, established between Thailand and China, hindered the achievement of the full potential of the U.S.-Thai alliance. Besides, the U.S. and Thai governments had different perceptions on some important political issues such as human rights, the role of military in society and the governance, policy towards Myanmar, and the security issues in the South China Sea. Since 2006, the U.S.–Thai defense and security cooperation was negatively affected by political instability in Thailand and military coup of 2006. As a result, during the rebalance to East Asia since 2011, the U.S. could not rely on effective cooperation with Thailand, its treaty ally. The military coup of 2014 caused the worst crisis in the U.S.-Thai relations. Though during D. Trump administration they were improved and the new vision of the alliance was agreed upon, this crisis actualized an issue of credibility of Thailand as an ally.

ESPOCH´s Education, Management and Research Achievements in Sustainable Development

Although sustainable development focuses on continuing the progress of societies without putting future resources and the environment at risk, new technologies, political treaties and economic initiatives are not enough. In this context, the role of universities is fundamental in the formation of leaders that allow raising awareness in society, and in the implementation of pilot projects that can be quickly adjusted and scaled. ESPOCH forms sustainability competencies with a formal focus, by including courses in environmental sustainability within all study curricula, as well as with a non-formal focus through extracurricular activities such as tree planting, avoiding the use of private vehicles, among others. Regarding management, projects such as the replacement of campus luminaires with high-efficiency LED lights, reducing energy consumption from 69 kWh-day to 11.5 KWh-day and the construction of intelligent buildings that will allow efficient management of resources and spaces are being carried out. The feedback obtained from ESPOCH’s participation in UI GreenMetric World University Rankings has allowed the university leaders, professors and students to identify the sectors that should be addressed as a priority and propose solutions to them considering sustainable development approaches.

Turkish Public Perceptions About Oman

Oman has long lasting peaceful relations with its neighbours and the world. It is a small size Arabian Gulf state with very rich natural resources. Relations between Oman and Turkey was very pleasant in 15-19th centuries. A century of interrupted relations has started to resurrect in the recent years with the new economic, political treaties and socio-cultural relations between two nations. Turkey and its policies, TV serials, and political leaders are very well known in Oman, whereas Oman is not very familiar to the Turkish people. In this research, to understand the level of Oman’s image in Turkey, a survey was orchestrated on more than 500 respondents and striking findings demonstrate that Oman is not well-known well in Turkey. The survey was conducted physically in the shopping malls in Istanbul and virtually via online questionnaire. Social representation of the survey overlaps on the Turkish social facts. In comparison with Europeans and Asians, the Turkish public knows Oman more than double of the world public opinion. For example, the location of Oman is known 51.9% in Turkey, but 38.2% in the world; the existence of general elections in Oman is known in Turkey on the level of 32.7%, whereas in Europe 16.3%. This study, as a primary resource, shares and interprets the result of conducted survey and then suggests some policy alternatives to Oman to be known better in Turkey and the world as a public diplomacy tool.

The Polish-Lithuanian Republic of Nobles in the French political thought (1573-1795)

AbstractThe modern Polish-Lithuanian Republic drew the attention of many French political authors like Théodore de Bèze, Jean Boucher, Jean Bodin, Henri de Boulainvilliers, Montesquieu, Voltaire or Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The Sarmatian State appeared in French political literature in 1573, when the French prince Henri de Valois was elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Republic, until 1795, when it disappeared from the map of Europe. It appeared not only in political treaties but also in pamphlets, manifestos and travel literature. This article aims at analysing this continuous presence, which constitutes a fascinating key for reading the French political debates of the modern era.

Spinoza para criminalistas

Bento (Baruch, Benedictus) of Spinoza is an author somewhat neglected by criminal lawyers and criminologists. Our educational frameworks for the teaching of Criminal Law and Criminology generally only locate John Locke as a historical counterpoint to Thomas Hobbes, leaving aside the extraordinary contribution made by Spinoza to political science (and, within this, the specific science of punitive power). This work conducts a brief review of texts key to understanding Spinoza’s contribution, analyzing the contents of Spinoza’s philosophical reflections on law and punishment in the three texts entitled: Ethics , Theological-Political Treaty , and Political Treaty .

La clementia y la libertad en la obra de Séneca

The work De Clementia de Seneca involves a defense of Emperor Nero in order to offer an image of the prince in the Rome of the High Empire. It is a political treaty, which should be understood as a dualism between the princes and the Senate

Ukrainian-Swedish Relations and Treaties of the XVII–XVIII Centuries

It can be said that Sweden’s appeal to Ukraine during the Thirty Years War (1618–1648) and the formation of an imperial state was quite understandable: Ukraine was the enemy of Sweden’s enemies. But the peculiarities of political and economic development of Sweden and its allies caused their claims to the West Ukrainian and Belarus lands. This made it impossible to conclude a full-fledged political treaty. The like situation is with Ukrainian-Swedish relations in 1708–1709, when Sweden was a guarantor of possession of West Ukrainian lands by Polish-Lithuanian state. Ukrainian-Swedish treaties of the XVII – early XVIII centuries had only a military-tactical character and a short-lived action. Only a crisis after Swedish-Ukrainian forces defeat and prolonged living hand-by-hand in the Ottoman Empire (1709–1714) gradually brought royal Swedish protectorate as a form of military alliance to full-fledged recognition of Ukraine as the state and concluding treaty of political nature. Unfortunately, its implementation was very limited. In addition, the close encounter with foreign legal culture and other circumstances of UkrainianSwedish relations gave the impetus to reviewing the grounds of state and law of Ukraine and the emergence of the “Pacts and Resolutions of the Rights and Privileges of the Viysko Zaporozke”, known as the Constitution of Ukraine of 1710. We argue that this document together with confirmation and assecuration charters by Karl XII is not only a monument of Ukrainian constitutionalism, but also a treaty between Ukraine and its protector, the king of Sweden.

The Labor Law Issues in the Treaties of Friendship and Cooperation Made by Poland with the Western European Countries after 1989

The Labor Law issues constitute a subject of the numerous bilateral and multilateral treaties. They have an important role in the system of Labor the Law sources. In regard to the bilateral treaties, Treaties of Friendship and Cooperation (so called political treaties) play significant role, not only because they reflect the priorities of one state’s foreign policy through definition of its territorial scope of interest, but also they indicate the areas of the particular interests of the parties. Poland, after the transformations of 1989–1990, entered into this type of treaties with the former socialist republics of the Central and Southern Europe established after the USSR dissolution, and – what constituted a novelty in Polish treaty policy – with the Western European states (France, Spain, Germany and Italy), and also with the countries included in this group for the political, not geographical reason: Greece and Turkey. Analysis of these treaties shows that the most of the labor references were used in the political treaty with a neighboring state, Germany. What is more, this field of cooperation was given its adequate rank and significance. Favorable solutions have been included in the treaties with Greece, Spain and Italy. The least consideration for the labor issues was given in the treaty with Turkey, as it includes only one provision, similar to the treaties with the other states, that deals with supporting the direct contacts among the trade unions.

Trade العلاقات التجارية للدولة الصفوية مع الدول الخارجية

Trade relations of the Safavid state with foreign countries Trade is one of the most important economic activities, where the consumer gets to life through a point of communication between the producer and the consumer. Trade is divided into internal and external trade, where the internal trader's responsibility is to deliver and provide products and services within the geographical boundaries of the state. Foreign trade is the process of exchanging national economic products outside the country's geographical borders, as well as the transfer of ownership of products and resources to one another through the import and export process. Therefore, trade is the important areas of life, which have become important factors that affected the economy (Iran) in a record period in the Safavid era, which led to the expansion and development of trade relations with neighboring countries abroad, and in order to recognize the importance of this aspect, this research Shows the importance of trade and its impact on political treaties of that era. This research is divided into an introduction with three main sections, the first deals with domestic and foreign trade, while the second section highlights the attention on trade routes, either the third and last section was for the purpose of studying the commercial relations of Safavid with other Nations, which include the (Ottoman, The Portuguese, British, Dutch, French, and Russians).

Trade العلاقات التجارية للدولة الصفوية مع الدول الخارجية

Trade relations of the Safavid state with foreign countries
 Trade is one of the most important economic activities, where the consumer gets to life through a point of communication between the producer and the consumer. Trade is divided into internal and external trade, where the internal trader's responsibility is to deliver and provide products and services within the geographical boundaries of the state. Foreign trade is the process of exchanging national economic products outside the country's geographical borders, as well as the transfer of ownership of products and resources to one another through the import and export process.
 Therefore, trade is the important areas of life, which have become important factors that affected the economy (Iran) in a record period in the Safavid era, which led to the expansion and development of trade relations with neighboring countries abroad, and in order to recognize the importance of this aspect, this research Shows the importance of trade and its impact on political treaties of that era.
 This research is divided into an introduction with three main sections, the first deals with domestic and foreign trade, while the second section highlights the attention on trade routes, either the third and last section was for the purpose of studying the commercial relations of Safavid with other Nations, which include the (Ottoman, The Portuguese, British, Dutch, French, and Russians).

Дальневосточная Арктика: роль инфраструктуры в экономическом развитии и системообразовании опорных зон

The key mechanisms of realization of the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation (AZRF) development program in the Far Eastern Federal District are support zones of development (North-Yakut and Chukotka zones) that represent complex projects aimed at considerable reinforcement of the economy of arctic zone, achievement of strategic interests, and provision of national security in the eastern sector of the Arctic. The article presents proof that successful realization of the projects, especially in the initial stages, depends heavily on the dominant role of the regional infrastructure. When creating said infrastructure, it is important to apply the tools of territorial and industrial development synchronically, as well as the mechanisms of realization of investment projects, including those based on the principles of state-private partnership. It is shown that the territories and water areas of the Far Eastern Arctic represent a very important second ‘support zone’ of the Russian Arctic, together with the developed first, western ‘support zone’ – the European part of the arctic shoreline of Russia that has close ties with arctic European countries and a system of cross-border scientific and political treaties. In the next decades, the Far Eastern sector and its foreign neighbors – Alaska and northwest parts of Canada – will transform into the largest intersection of the sea roads of the Arctic thanks to the development of the Northern Sea Route (NSR), the Northwest Passage, and the growth of sea shipping along the Northwest coast of the USA and Canada. This intersection will also become the center of important political and economic issues that will determine further scientific, technological and economic development of the Arctic

Conceptualizing Europeanness and European Politics: Issues of Turkey’s Compatibility

The current paper aims to describe aspects of the debate regarding Turkey’s compatibility with how Europeanness is conceptualized. It is hereby questioned: How is Europe conceptualized? What’s the role of history towards such conceptualizations? Which are the parameters of Europeanness? And finally, is Turkey part of Europe? These questions are found at the core of the overall problematique concerning Turkey’s bid for access into the European Union (EU) and westernization process, in general. No matter how general they are, the questions refer to a certain philosophical debate which is extended to political and strategic aspects of the future of Europe as well as the future of Turkey in it. Ankara’s bid for EU membership and the ongoing negotiations are identified with this extension from philosophy to politics and strategy. On this line of thought, the current paper examines the concept of Europeanness in correlation with Turkish identity and ends to examine practical issues with regard to the EU-Turkey continuing dialogue. With reference to significant bibliography, the whole series of stakes is presented as well as the overall rhetoric legitimizing Turkey’s historical westernization inclinations. Therefore, the concluding remarks are related to all the practical aspects setting questions regarding Turkey’s access to the EU, keeping in mind that the EU nature is absolutely different to the strategic priorities of Ankara and its policy-making practices. For this reason, with one phrase, the conclusion could be ‘compatibility under conditions’ beyond any historical and philosophical references, since the anti-hegemonic nature of the EU structure is clearly incompatible to a grand strategy of economic projects manipulation for political purposes and treaties revision under an aggressive argumentation of Ottoman-like domination. As far as the EU value system is still valid and it is diffused into politics and the framework within European Great Powers are organized, hegemony matters and it is avoidable.

LATERAN AGREEMENTS AS A LEGAL BASIS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VATICAN CITY-STATE

The article examines the process of the formation of the Vatican City-State as a result of the signing of the Lateran Agreements, signed on February 11, 1929 between the Holy See (represented by Cardinal Pietro Gasparry, Secretary of State) and the Kingdom of Italy (represented by Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. The author is considering the so-called «Roman question» – about the status of the Vatican after the dissolution of the Pontifical State in 1870, and the historical and political preconditions for the conclusion of the Lateran agreements, which finally resolved it. The author describes the peculiarities of the conclusion, structure (treaty, financial convention and concordat) and the main content of the Lateran agreements. The political treaty was characterized as one of the three parts of the Lateran agreements, which legally consolidated the state status of the Vatican. In fact, under the Lateran agreements, the Pope acknowledged Rome as the residence of the Italian government. Instead, the Italian government guaranteed secular sovereignty of the Holy See, including international affairs (Article 2); provided for the formal recognition of the Vatican status as a sovereign territory, governed by the Holy See, formally calling the Vatican — the City of Vatican City (Citta del Vaticano), whose boundaries are determined by the plan annexed to the treaty (Article 3). A number of articles regulated administrative issues, provisions on special citizenship for the subjects of the Holy See, about the diplomatic corps of the Holy See, etc. Besides that the treaty recognize Catholicism as «the only state religion» in Italy (Article 1). The Financial Convention resolved the issue of compensation to the Holy See for the loss of the Holy See in connection with the liquidation of the Papal region. Namely it provided for the payment by Italy to the Holy See 750 millions of lir as 5-% securities (Article 1); instead, the Holy See abandoned the financial claims to Italy that arose as a result of the formation of an Italian state (Article 2) (this meant the armed capture of the territory of the Pontifical State by the troops of the King of Sardinian, Victor Emmanuel Savoy in 1870, and the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1871). Concordat regulated the relationship between the Roman Catholic Church and the Italian state. In particular it defined the rights and privileges of the Catholic Church in Italy, the state announced 10 holy holidays as well as Sundays on non-working days (Article 11); bishops are obliged to swear allegiance to the King of Italy as the head of state (Article 20). Other articles envisaged the wide involvement of the clergy in the Italian education system, recognize the organization «Catholic Action», etc. Consequently, the signing of the Lateran agreements put an end to the conflict between the Pope and the Italian state and provided the papal territory with a definite state status. This allowed the Vatican to actively move to the interstate policy.

Biopolítica, máquina antropológica e identidad: América como un espacio libre para la violencia

<p class="p1">El presente artículo realiza un análisis arqueológico de algunos de los discursos y prácticas que jugaron un rol decisivo en la efectuación de la Conquista de América y el establecimiento de un orden político fundado en un prejuicio racial, regido por la dominación y, en consecuencia, excluyente y violento. Dicha investigación se basa en: (i) los conceptos de <em>biopolítica </em>y <em>máquina antropológica </em>de Giorgio Agamben y la relación entre estos y las comunidades identitarias; (ii) los estudios de ciertos autores poscoloniales; y (iii) los escritos de Carl Schmitt sobre el derecho internacional. El análisis de la concepción aristotélico-tomista de lo humano, de la división geográfica del mundo construida desde Europa y de los tratados jurídico-políticos celebrados entre soberanos europeos durante los siglos XV y XVI permitirán proponer a la Conquista de América como un paradigma de esta forma de poder que ha caracterizado la política de Occidente: la biopolítica. </p>

TO THE QUESTION ABOUT BACKGROUND OF THE VATICAN CITY STATE

History of Vatican City State, as the spiritual center of Catholics, features of the formation and development of the worldʼs smallest state, activities and functioning of organs and symbiosis of temporal and spiritual power in the hands of the head of state - the Pope is extremely topical issues of interest to more people - both believers and atheists. This article is dedicated to the creation of Vatican City State by the signature of the Lateran Pacts, which took place on February 11th, 1929, in the Popesʼ Room at the Lateran Palace. The Lateran Pacts aimed to settle once and for all what was known as the «Roman Question», regarding relations between the Vatican and the former Papal States that had become modern Italy. The significant event ended decades of vicissitudes of the Papacy and the Church in Italy, beginning a new period of the history of the Church and of the Italian People. The Lateran Pacts occupy a primary and unique position in the sphere of the relations with Governments and States maintained by the Holy See. It was focused attention on the historical analysis of the prerequisites and consequences of the Lateran agreements. The Lateran Pacts was the birth of the independence of the Vatican as modern state. The state of the Vatican City became a sovereign state with the pope as its recognized leader. The papacy recognized the state of Italy with Rome as its capital. On the other hand, Italy recognized papal sovereignty over the Vatican City and also secured full independence for the pope. The status of the two states changed with each recognizing its territory and responsibilities. It was paid attention separately on the content and meaning of three parts of the Lateran Pacts. The Lateran Pacts signed by Mussolini on 11 February 1929, had three parts, namely: a political treaty, which gave Vatican its own microstate; a financial convention, which gave Vatican compensations and a concordat, giving the Holy See privileges within Italy and stating regulations establishing the relations between the Catholic Church and Italian state. It was determined also the issue of concentration absolute legislative, executive and judicial branches in the hands of the Pope.

Spatial Transformations of European Borderlands

The relaxation or disappearance of border controls in the interior of the European Union (EU) and the strengthening of controls on exterior frontiers are two different trends related to border policies in Europe. Unique territorial and urban models share common dividing elements, although their strategies of governance may be mutually exclusive. These elements produce unexpected transformations of the associated territory and society.This article investigates how consideration of the social impact of spatial transformations can offer new perspectives on our understanding and treatment of borders. The methodology proposed is the analysis of two case studies of historical inner borders within the EU, selected for their divergent evolutions during the past century. The Gorizia–Nova Gorica border between Italy and Slovenia and the Gibraltar–La Línea de la Concepción border between the UK and Spain both offer valuable opportunities for understanding spatial development in borderland areas in terms of their historical transformations following numerous political treaties and their different planning strategies for the future. The concept of fixed and unchanging spaces gives way to dynamic spaces that adapt to societal changes influencing their respective territories. Although both examples are affected by the policies of the EU, the contemporary evolution of these two case studies is quite different. While planning policy historically neglected the amelioration of borderlands in the past, assigning them to underdeveloped uses or green areas, research in recent decades reveals new possibilities and contradictions related to inner-European borders.