Plettenberg Bay Research Articles

Recolonisation of the Robberg Peninsula (Plettenberg Bay, South Africa) by Cape fur seals

The Cape fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus colony at Robberg Peninsula, Plettenberg Bay, on the south-east coast of South Africa, was driven to extinction by indiscriminate harvesting by the late 1800s. Seals only began to recolonise this site in the 1990s. This study describes the recolonisation process from 2000 to 2009, exploring both within- and between-year count data of seals using the site. Counts increased over the study period from <300 animals to >3 100. Generalised linear models indicated the importance of year and month in explaining variability in the counts. Withinyear variability in the counts decreased over the study period, which may be related to an increasing proportion of resident (as opposed to transient) seals in the colony. However, the colony is currently still in a transition phase with a low ratio of breeding to non-breeding animals, based on the low numbers of pups born in the colony (currently still <100 per year). The influx of seals to the Robberg area may be associated with shifts in prey availability at the ecosystem level. The colony benefits from the protection afforded by the reserve status of the Robberg Peninsula and the existence of a marine protected area adjacent to it. However, human interference associated with fishing and/or ecotourism on the peninsula may inhibit development into a substantial breeding colony. Potential interventions for the conservation and management of this colony are discussed.

The Management of Urban Sprawl by Applying an Urban Edge Strategy

Rapid urbanisation, combined with uncontrolled urban growth in urban areas ill prepared for these challenges leads to urban sprawl. Urban sprawl is constantly on the increase, and the consequences are the ineffective use of land and urban infrastructure. This leads to the loss of biodiversity as well as the pushing of low-income families out onto the fringes of the urban area. Research has proven that cities with urban management structures in place, such as urban edges, are better off than cities without any urban management policies Blair (Public Works Management Policy 6(2):103–113, 2001; Nelson and Peterman (Journal of Planning Education and Research 19:277–285, 2000). The establishment of sound urban edges for small towns such as Plettenberg Bay (Bitou Local Municipality) will improve the possibility of the effective use of bulk infrastructure. Furthermore, the implementation of an urban edge will make the town more compact, increase the density and minimize urban sprawl while protecting the environment. This will result in a town that is more sustainable in terms of reduced greenhouse emissions and non-renewable resources that are sensibly used.

Travel motivations of tourists to selected marine destinations

ABSTRACTSouth Africa is well known for its favourable climate, wildlife and golden beaches. Adding to this, its long summers make its coastline (over 3500 km) even more attractive to tourists around the world, and so are transforming the South African coast into a major marine tourism attraction. Along this lengthy coastline lie numerous marine destinations attracting thousands of tourists. These destinations offer various activities such as scuba diving, snorkelling, swimming, world class surfing and whale watching to tourists. When trying to capitalise on these assets, marketers clearly state that it is necessary to understand the market that uses them and the reasons people travel. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to determine the travel motives of tourists to selected marine destinations.Five surveys were conducted at marine resorts by means of a structured questionnaire. Two hundred and two (202) questionnaires were completed at Hartenbos, 210 at Jeffrey's Bay, 333 at Margate, 237 at Amanzimtoti and 153 at Plettenberg Bay. The statistical analysis entailed descriptive statistics and a factor analysis of the five surveys. The results revealed similarity regarding escape and relaxation as travel motives when compared to other research. However, time usage and personal attachment were unique motives identified by this study.A combination of psychological motives and of more tangible aspects should be used in tourism marketing strategies in order to attract a higher number of visitors to marine destinations. These results will, therefore, assist marketers and product developers of marine destinations, particularly with the marine tourism product being very similar. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Mechanisms of habitat segregation between an invasive (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and an indigenous (Perna perna) mussel: adult growth and mortality

The invasive mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis and the indigenous mussel Perna perna coexist intertidally on the south coast of South Africa through partial vertical habitat segregation: M. galloprovincialis dominates the upper shore and P. perna the lower shore. Recruitment patterns can explain the zonation of P. perna, but not the invasive species. We examined the role of post-recruitment interactions by measuring spatial and temporal differences in adult growth and mortality rates of the two species. Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that interspecific differences in growth and mortality reflect adult distribution patterns. The two study locations, Plettenberg Bay and Tsitsikamma, are 70 km apart with two sites (separated by 300–400 m) per location, each divided into three vertical zones. Growth was measured seasonally using different marking methods in 2001 and 2003. Cumulative adult mortality was measured through summer in 2003/2004. Both species generally grew more slowly upshore, but they showed different effects of season. For P. perna, growth was significantly reduced in winter in the low zone, but unaffected by season in the high zone. For M. galloprovincialis, growth was either unaffected by season or increased in winter, even in the high zone. Thus, growth of P. perna and M. galloprovincialis was reduced under cool winter and warm summer temperatures, respectively; and while growth was more similar between species in summer, M. galloprovincialis grew much faster than P. perna in winter. Mortality of P. perna increased upshore. For M. galloprovincialis, mortality was not zone-dependent and was significantly greater than for P. perna on the low-shore and (generally) across the shore in Tsitsikamma. Both species had higher growth and mortality rates in Plettenberg Bay than in Tsitsikamma. Thus, P. perna seems able to maintain spatial dominance on the low-shore and at certain sites because of higher mortality of M. galloprovincialis. We conclude that seasonality in growth of the two species reflects their biogeographic affinities and that coexistence is possible through pre-recruitment effects that limit the vertical distribution of P. perna and post-recruitment effects that limit M. galloprovincialis.

Mechanisms of habitat segregation between an invasive and an indigenous mussel: settlement, post-settlement mortality and recruitment

The mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis is highly invasive worldwide, but displays varying degrees of local and regional coexistence with indigenous mussels through spatial habitat segregation. We investigated the roles of settlement, post-settlement mortality, juvenile growth and recruitment in partial habitat segregation between the invasive M. galloprovincialis and the indigenous mussel Perna perna on the south coast of South Africa. We used two study locations, Plettenberg Bay and Tsitsikamma, 70 km apart, with two sites (separated by 300–400 m) per location, each divided into three vertical zones. There were no significant effects in Tsitsikamma, where daily settlement and monthly recruitment were significantly lower than in Plettenberg Bay. In Plettenberg Bay, settlement (primary and secondary) and recruitment of both species decreased upshore. Post-settlement mortality was measured over two consecutive 6-day periods during a spring tide and a neap tide. For both species mortality was low on the low-shore. High-shore mortality was consistently low for M. galloprovincialis, but increased dramatically for P. perna during spring tide. No data were obtained for growth of P. perna, but juvenile M. galloprovincialis grew more slowly farther upshore. P. perna recruited mainly in spring and summer, with a peak in summer far greater than for M. galloprovincialis. Recruitment of M. galloprovincialis was more protracted, continuing through autumn and winter. Thus local coexistence is due to a combination of pre- and post-recruitment factors differing in importance for each species. P. perna is excluded from the high-shore by recruitment failure (low settlement, high mortality). High survival and slow growth in juveniles may allow large densities of M. galloprovincialis to accumulate there, despite low settlement rates. With no differences between species in settlement or mortality on the low-shore, exclusion of M. galloprovincialis from that zone is likely to be by post-recruitment processes, possibly strengthened by periodic heavy recruitments of P. perna. At larger scales, larval retention and protracted recruitment contribute to the success of M. galloprovincialis at Plettenberg Bay, while recruitment limitation may explain why M. galloprovincialis is less successful at other sites.

A preliminary survey of the estuaries on the south coast of South Africa, Cape St Blaize, Mossel Bay—Robberg Peninsula, Plettenberg Bay, with particular reference to the fish fauna

The coastal river systems on the south coast of South Africa from Cape St Blaize to Robberg Peninsula were surveyed during October and November 1994. The ichthyofaunal and physico-chemical characteristics of each system are presented and their suitability as estuarine nursery areas is discussed. Five systems (Rooi, Meul, Grooteiland, Kranshoek and Crooks) are outlets of small coastal streams and probably provide little or no habitat for either resident estuarine or migrant marine fishes owing to their small size. Four systems (Maalgate, Gwaing, Skaapkop and Kaaimans) are located within deeply incised valleys and have a permanent connection with the sea. The amount of marginal and intertidal habitat available to fishes, however, is limited due to their morphology. Six systems (Hartenbos, Groot Brak, Touw, Swartvlei, Goukamma and Noetsie) are intermittently open to the sea. Although the Touw and Swartvlei are connected to coastal lake systems, flow within these estuaries is not sufficient to prevent the build up of a sand barrier at the mouth. The Hartenbos, Groot Brak, Goukamma, and Noetsie are also periodically closed by a sand bar. The construction of a dam in the lower catchment of the Groot Brak has affected the hydrology of the system. The two remaining estuaries (Klein Brak and Knysna) are permanently open. In addition to strong tidal currents, the fixing of the mouth of the Knysna Estuary between rocky headlands also serves to maintain a permanent connection with the sea. Mugilidae and Sparidae were represented by the greatest number of species, and also dominated catches numerically and by mass. The fish fauna of all the estuaries surveyed were dominated by the juveniles of estuarine-dependent marine species and estuarine-resident species were also well represented in catches. The estuaries surveyed provide a vital habitat for both marine migrant species and resident species, most of which are endemic to the region.

Development of fishery indicators for local management initiatives — a case study for Plettenberg Bay, South Africa

In attempts to achieve sustainability, ecosystem-based approaches to fisheries management are becoming increasingly applicable. Indicators to assess the success of management measures are an important component of this approach. Data from a recreational linefishery are used to develop and propose a simple set of indicators to assess local fishery sustainability. The indicators have been organised within a framework based on the ecological, institutional and social sustainability domains and scored through a rapid assessment matrix. Results indicate that the estuarine, rock-and-surf (coastal) and skiboat-based fisheries in Plettenberg Bay on the south coast of South Africa are presently non-sustainable. The institutional domain had very low scores whereas the socio-economic domain had the highest scores. The validity and usefulness of the indicators as a tool for the development of local fishery management plans are discussed.

Gordonia lacunae sp. nov., isolated from an estuary

An actinomycete, strain BS2 T, was isolated from a sand sample collected from an estuary in Plettenberg Bay, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequence similarities and chemotaxonomy, strain BS2 T was identified as a member of the genus Gordonia. It exhibited weak antibiosis against Mycobacterium aurum A+ and Mycobacterium smegmatis LR222. Phenotypic and phylogenetic results allowed for the differentiation of strain BS2 T from other species within the genus Gordonia. DNA–DNA hybridization further differentiated strain BS2 T from its nearest phylogenetic neighbour, Gordonia terrae NRRL B-16283 T (57.5±4.4% DNA relatedness). Strain BS2 T is therefore a novel species within the genus Gordonia, for which the name Gordonia lacunae is proposed, with the type strain being BS2 T (=DSM 45085 T=NRRL B-24551 T).

Diet, Mobility, and Settlement Pattern among Holocene Hunter‐Gatherers in Southernmost Africa

Integration of new biological information (stable isotope analyses of archaeological human skeletons) with the archaeological sequence of southernmost Africa and with wider sociocultural studies of hunters and gatherers shows that between 4,500 and 2,000 BP coastal huntergatherers buried on the Robberg Peninsula and adjacent Plettenberg Bay ate large quantities of hightrophiclevel marine protein. This contrasts with more mixed diets reflected in skeletons from Matjes River Rock Shelter, only 14 km along the shore. Assuming that the burials represent the populations that inhabited the sites, such clear economic separation could have come about only if these were two separate groups of people who lived in clearly demarcated, mutually exclusive territories. Such a settlement pattern directly contradicts ethnographic studies of southern African huntergatherers, all derived from inland areas. Later Stone Age material culture, including the assemblages from these sites, shows many similarities to that of twenti...

Will the invasive mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck replace the indigenous Perna perna L. on the south coast of South Africa?

The mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis is invasive worldwide, has displaced indigenous species on the west coast of South Africa and now threatens Perna perna on the south coast. We tested the hypothesis that Mytilus will replace Perna by examining changes in their distribution on shores where they co-exist. Total cover, adult density, recruit density, recruit/adult correlations and mean maximum lengths of both species were measured in 2001 at two contrasting sites (Plettenberg Bay and Tsitsikamma) 70 km apart, each including two locations 100 m apart. Cover and density were measured again in 2004. Total mussel abundance was significantly lower in Tsitsikamma, and recruit density was only 17% that of Plettenberg Bay. Abundance and cover increased upshore for Mytilus, but decreased for Perna, giving Mytilus higher adult and recruit density and total cover than Perna in the upper zones. Low shore densities of recruits and adults were similar between species but cover was lower for Mytilus, reflecting its smaller size, and presumably slower growth or higher mortality there. Thus, mechanisms excluding species differed among zones. Recruitment limitation delays invasion at Tsitsikamma and excludes Perna from the high shore, while Mytilus is excluded from the low shore by post-recruitment effects. Recruitment limitation also shapes population structure. Recruit/adult correlations were significant only where adult densities were low, and this effect was species-specific. Thus, at low densities, larvae settle or survive better near adult conspecifics. After 3 years, these patterns remained strongly evident, suggesting Mytilus will not eliminate Perna and that co-existence is possible through partial habitat segregation driven by recruitment limitation of Perna on the high shore and post-settlement effects on Mytilus on the low shore.

Status, distribution and conservation implications of the Kelp Gull (Larus dominicanus vetula) within the Eastern Cape region of South Africa

Numbers of Kelp Gulls (Larus dominicanus vetula) were counted at breeding and resting sites along a section of coastline ~354 km long, between Plettenberg Bay (34°05'S, 23°22'E), Western Cape Province, and the mouth of the Great Fish River (33°29'S, 27°08'E), Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, between February 2003 and June 2004. This area held ~10% of the southern African population. The breeding population of this region was estimated to have increased by 71% since 1982. Four breeding sites had shown an increase in numbers, five a decrease, one showed little change, three had been abandoned and five had not previously been recorded. Numbers breeding at mainland sites showed a marked increase but colonies on offshore islands had decreased. The proportion of adult birds in the population ranged from 79% to 86%, with a mean of 83%. Juvenile birds were most frequently recorded during autumn and winter but many appeared to have left the region by the following spring. Problems experienced with increasing populations of gulls in the northern hemisphere do not yet appear to be associated with the increase in numbers of Kelp Gulls in southern Africa. Sensible management of human-generated waste and refuse, limiting the amount that is available to Gulls, would be a major step in preventing the Kelp Gull from attaining pest status in southern Africa.

Impact of cutting and collecting of firewood associated with informal settlement in the south-eastern Cape coastal zone

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of wood cutting and collecting on vegetation around informal settlements in the south-eastern Cape coastal zone. Thicket and Afromontane forest vegetation were selectively sampled at Kenton-on-Sea, Port Elizabeth, Plettenberg Bay and Knysna, using a fence-line approach, in combination with transects. The floristic data were then ordinated using Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA). Certain notable changes in vegetation structure and floristics were evident. Wood cutting and collecting increased species richness, diversity and heterogeneity in thicket vegetation and it would appear that thicket tolerates current levels of utilisation. On the other hand, both species richness, diversity and heterogeneity decreased in forest near informal settlements, suggesting that forest is not adapted to cope with such impacts.

A recreational valuation of the freshwater inflows into the Keurbooms estuary by means of a contingent valuation study

This paper reports on a contingent valuation made of the freshwater inflow into the Keurbooms Estuary near Plettenberg Bay, South Africa, in April 2001. The value of this water was estimated in terms of the services yielded to recreation users of the estuary, to be between R0,012/m3 and R0,046/m3. This value is currently lower than what farmers are willing to pay for the water in this area, as measured by the income capitalisation method, namely R0,125/m3, but may increase in the future as more and more South African estuaries are undermined through upstream river water abstraction, and recreational substitutes are diminished. A willingness-to-pay function was also estimated and show annual levies paid and investment in goods to access the estuary services to be important determinants of willingness-to-pay.

Direct hydroacoustic observations of chokka squid Loligo vulgaris reynaudii spawning activity in deep water

Unusual and distinct hydroacoustic targets were observed in November 1996, May 1998 and November 1998 during routine pelagic biomass surveys off the south coast of South Africa. During the November 1996 survey, seven such targets were observed near the bottom at depths of 115–125 m, directly south of the traditional inshore spawning grounds of chokka squid Loligo vulgaris reynaudii at Cape St Francis. The targets were close to prominent seabed ridges and extended 30–40 m off the bottom. In May 1998, three similar targets were observed at depths 55–80 m off Plettenberg Bay, another well-known squid spawning site. The shallowest target was identified, by means of a midwater trawl, as a mixture of mature male and female chokka. During the November 1998 survey, nine similar targets were again observed on the squid spawning grounds at Cape St Francis, also adjacent to seabed ridges. Drawing on fisheries hydroacoustic experience and knowledge of chokka squid spawning behaviour, the targets are believed to be ag...

THE IMPACT OF THE FUR SEAL INDUSTRY ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF CAPE FUR SEALS ARCTOCEPHALUS PUSILLUS PUSILLUS ON THE EASTERN CAPE COAST OF SOUTH AFRICA

SUMMARY The present paper provides a review of the former distribution and abundance of Cape fur seals, Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus, off the Eastern Cape coast of South Africa based on available historical records. It identifies the distribution of Eastern Cape seals before commercial sealing began; documents sealing activities off the Eastern Cape coast during the 19th and 20th centuries, and discusses current population trends in relation to past exploitation regimes. The importance of the Eastern Cape population is discussed in relation to the total population. Cape fur seals were valued primarily for their fine quality furs. Other products included oil from the blubber; leather from skins of old seals; and vitamin A from the liver. Exploitation by Europeans began near the Cape of Good Hope in 1610. By the end of the 19th century more than 20 colonies had been extirpated. On the Eastern Cape coast, Cape fur seals inhabited six islands in Algoa Bay (Stag, Seal, Black Rocks, St. Croix, Jahleel and Brenton) and two sites in Plettenberg Bay (Seal Point on the Robberg Peninsula and Beacon Island). Soon after British settlement of Algoa Bay in 1820, the St. Croix and Bird Islands were leased to individuals by the governor of the Cape Colony (Lord Charles Sommerset) at an annual rental, for fishing and sealing purposes. More than 18 000 seals were killed by commercial sealers in Algoa Bay between 1822 and 1825; > 2 935 between 1831 and 1850; c. 3 516 between 1851 and 1876; > 1 763 in 1907 and 1908; and > 500 between 1943 and 1949. Harvest figures for Plettenberg Bay are unknown. Available evidence suggests that seals had been extirpated from St. Croix, Jahleel and Brenton Islands in the late 1850s; Seal Point between 1857 and 1890; Stag Island in the mid/late 1800s; Seal Island in the early 1900s; and Beacon Island in the late 1800s/early 1900s. Black Rocks was the only colony on the Eastern Cape coast to survive commercial sealing operations. Access to Black Rocks is difficult and for that reason sealing activities were irregular. Sealing operations on Black Rocks were terminated in 1949. At present, Black Rocks supports c. 700 seals. In the last 12 years the population has decreased by 82%. By destroying seal herds through commercial harvesting, and confining the population to Black Rocks, the population is unable to build up its numbers sufficiently to stimulate colonisation on neighbouring islands. Limited space for breeding seals on Black Rocks, and the influence of storms (gale force winds and high swells) restricts the number of pups that can be reared successfully. It is unlikely that the Black Rocks population can increase quickly enough to flow onto Seal and Stag Island, without being depleted by storms. The effect of man on the Seal, Stag and Black Rocks population is therefore a permanent one. Approximately 23 000 Cape fur seals may have occupied the Bird Island group before European exploitation. The current population for the Eastern Cape coast is considerably less than its historical size.

ENDOPARASITES OF THE CAPE FUR SEAL ARCTOCEPHALUS PUSILLUS PUSILLUS FROM THE EASTERN CAPE COAST OF SOUTH AFRICA

SUMMARY A total of 53 Cape fur seals. Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus, collected along the Eastern Cape coast of South Africa between Plettenberg Bay (34° 03'S, 23° 24'E) and East London (33° 03'S, 27° 54'E) from 1992 to 1995, was examined for blubber and stomach parasites. Forty three of these seals (81%) harboured stomach parasites, and 13 (25%) harboured blubber parasites. Nine parasite taxa were identified. Helminth species included adult cestodes Diphyllobothrium sp., larval cestodes, Hepatoxylon trichiuri and Phyllobothrium delphini; nematodes, Anisakis physeteris, Anisakis simplex. Contracaecum ogmorhini, Contracaecum sp. and Hysterothylacium sp. and an acanthocephalan, Corynosoma sp. Three of these taxa, Hepatoxylon trichiuri, Anisakis physeteris, and Hysterothylacium sp., were accidental parasites. Scanning electron microscope examination confirmed the identity of Contracaecum ogmorhini and suggests that earlier studies may have incorrectly identified this nematode as Contracaecum osculatum. The prevalence and diversity of endoparasitism was higher in older seals. Intensity of infection was generally higher in stranded animals than in healthy animals incidentally captured in trawl nets. The endoparasites found in the present study did not appear to contribute to the mortality of Cape fur seals, at least in the population from which the examined specimens were taken. Although the anisakine nematodes, Contracaecum sp. and Anisakis sp., are potentially pathogenic, severe pathological changes were limited to small gastric lesions in the stomachs of three individuals.

Sublittoral sand dollar(Echinodiscus bisperforatus)communities in two bays on the South African south coast

Macrofaunal community assemblages associated with Echinodiscus bisperforatus beds were investigated at three relatively sheltered, sandy subtidal areas in Plettenberg Bay and St. Francis Bay on the...

Impacts of Informal Settlements on South-Eastern Cape Coastal Vegetation (South Africa)

The distribution of informal settlements in the south-eastern Cape coastal region and the types of impacts on the vegetation were assessed Natural vegetation adjacent to some of these settlements was sampled by means of the Braun-Blanquet and pointcentred quarter methods. Informal settlements in the south-eastern Cape coastal region exist at Port Alfred, Kenton-on-Sea, Jeffreys Bay, Plettenberg Bay and Knysna. Population numbers of these settlements vary from 180 to 4796 people. Five vegetation types are being impacted. The collection of firewood was found to be the most important impact. Other impacts include footpaths, the collecting of medicinal bark or muti, solid waste pollution and soil erosion. It was also found that the extent of impact is a function of distance away from settlements.

The location of spawning grounds, spawning and schooling behaviour of the squid Loligo vulgaris reynaudii (Cephalopoda: Myopsida) off the Eastern Cape Coast, South Africa

The location of spawning grounds of the squid Loligo vulgaris reynaudii (D'Orbigny) was investigated in the years 1988–1990. At least 39 spawning sites were found during this period along the inshore areas of the Eastern Cape coastline between Algoa Bay and Plettenberg Bay. The substrate chosen for egg laying was mostly fine sand or flat reef, frequently in large and relatively shettered bays. Spawning was found to occur sporadically throughout the year, and some spawning sites were used repeatedly within a particular year and in subsequent years. Squid migrate in discrete schools separated by sex in the vicinity of the spawning sites; these schools mix during spawning. Mating and egg deposition behaviour is described from observations made on the spawning grounds. Cannibalism was seen on a number of occasions, but no post-spawning mortality was recorded. Egg beds consisted mostly of large concentrations of egg strands (>3 m in diameter), with smaller aggregations of one to ten egg strands surrounding these, with single strands in the immediate vicinity. Three basic patterns of echotraces were identified and interpreted according to diving observations. These patterns were classified as loose patches, dense patches, and complex patterns. The first two represent non-spawning schooling patterns and the third, mating and egg laying behaviour. This observation led to the general classification of squid aggregations: schools (non-spawning mode) and concentrations (spawning mode). Concentrations as far as Loligo vulgaris reynaudii was concerned were further divided into two patterns: suprabenthic and benthic (spawning) squid.

Disjunctions and Distribution Limits of Forest Species in the Southern Cape

SYNOPSIS A total of 206 species reach their distribution limits within the southern Cape forests, or have disjunct distributions within this area and wider distributions outside. Biological variables (growth form, dispersal type) and habitat variables (forest type, moisture tolerance) are not significantly correlated with the drop-out of species, but all distribution variables (spread and abundance in study area, geographic origin) are. Species with a western distribution limit are concentrated in the Mossel Bay-George area. It is suggested that these western limits and the disjunctions west of Gouritz River and in the Knysna and Tsitsikamma forests relate to the major forest decline with the onset of the Late Pliocene marine regression. Species tolerant of drier conditions are concentrated in disjunct localities of dry high or scrub forest in the drier valleys around Mossel Bay and Plettenberg Bay, at Nature's Valley, on the dunes around Sedgefield, and in the coastal areas of eastern Tsitsikamma. This p...