Platform Work Research Articles

Challenges of platform employment development in brics countries

The paper seeks to evaluate the state of development of platform employment in the BRICS countries under the influence of digital transformation of the economy and society and identify common challenges that the countries face in this area. The study of the national regulatory frameworks and statistical data from Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa allowed the authors to pinpoint the main trends in the platform employment development, identify its ‘bottlenecks’ caused by the lack of common understanding of the phenomenon, create socio-demographic portrait of the platform worker and address the issues pertaining to collective representation of the workers’ interests with a focus on social partnership. The research has taken into account specific traits of the BRICS countries and so its findings and proposals can be used for flexible regulation of their platforms aiming to achieve a balance of interests of the government, business and workers.

Platform Worker Protection in the United States

Platform Worker Protection in the United States

Where rookies prevail: Digital habitus and age‐based earnings differentials in online legal services

AbstractThis research investigates how and why the digitalization of work can disrupt age‐based earnings stratification in an occupation. Analysing a service archive dataset from a major online legal service platform in China, the study finds that, contrary to the traditional patterns of income inequality, younger lawyers earn more than older lawyers in the digital legal field. Further analyses of the platform's service records and interviews with lawyers working on this platform suggest that the platform's work content and work distribution mechanism make mature lawyers’ human, social and symbolic capital less useful. Meanwhile, the preferences of platform clients place added value on younger lawyers’ digital habitus and turn it into a new form of cultural capital, manifested in their proficiency and effectiveness in digital communication. By examining habitus and capital in the emerging digital legal field, this research deepens the understanding of the impact of digital technologies on knowledge‐intensive occupations.

The classification of platform workers in the australian context

This article considers the issue of classification of platform workers in Australia and it is motivated by the uncertainty that persists with this issue as well as the negative impacts that may arise for workers and platforms in such an environment. We contend that awaiting a decision of the High Court, that may provide clarification on the correct classification of platform workers, is not a preferred option for resolving the issue. Introducing a third category of worker to the existing categories – employee and independent contractor – has the potential to introduce its own complexities. Another option is a legislative intervention whereby existing legislation would be amended to deem platform workers to be employees. We argue that a better alternative is for the Australian legislature to enact a legislative definition of employee similar to that in the Employment Relations Act (New Zealand) s 6(1)(a). A principle-based approach to drafting the provision, and a purposive approach to its interpretation appear to be effective means of addressing the indeterminacy that has pervaded the platform worker classification issue in Australia.

Platform labour on the margins and beyond the digital realm: Mapping the landscape of “platform-generated labour” in the digitally mediated short-term rental market.

This paper explores the landscape of labour in the platform economy and, more specifically, the ways local economic activities and actors are exposed to pressures of platformisation, building on the case of the Airbnb platform and the digitally-mediated short-term rental (STR) market in Athens. Conceptualising STR networks as infrastructural assemblages and through a qualitative study building on 27 semi-structured interviews with relevant actors, I focus on: tracing the wide range of workers who undertake essential tasks, the employment statuses, compensations and modes of engagement of workers, restrictions and gender-dimensions, as well as the content and attributes of STR-related work. My main argument is built around the notion of ‘platform worker’ and the need to expand it beyond workers that are directly related to the platforms, in order to include the on-site labour force upon which the creation and everyday operation of broader platform ecosystems and related infrastructure are depended.

Dark side of algorithmic management on platform worker behaviors: A mixed‐method study

AbstractThis research investigates the impact of algorithmic management on worker behaviors, focusing on workers' commitment to service quality and referral tendencies. Drawing upon the job demands‐resources model, we argue that high levels of algorithmic management could create hindrance demands that impede service quality and demotivate referral behaviors. We propose that high workload, as a challenge demand, buffers the negative effects of algorithmic management on worker outcomes. We find support for our proposed research model in an experiment with a sample of 1362 platform‐based food‐delivery riders. We also conduct a qualitative study with 21 riders, which provides a more nuanced understanding of how algorithmic management affects workers' attitudes, behaviors, and referral tendencies.

지역 기반 플랫폼노동 종사자의 잠재계층 유형과 관련 특성

The purpose of this study is to identify the types of latent classes among regional-based platform workers according to demographic, social, and economic characteristics, and to examine the job-related and psychosocial characteristics of each type. For this research, data from a survey on the living conditions of platform workers were used. The final analysis included data from 687 platform workers across the nation, including 151 designated drivers, 152 courier service drivers, 152 delivery service drivers, 132 passenger transport drivers, and 100 domestic workers. The analysis method involved conducting latent class analysis to identify the types of platform workers and using cross-analysis and one-way ANOVA to understand the factors associated with each type. As a result of the latent class analysis, four latent classes were identified: ‘Young male primary workers’, ‘Highly educated middle-aged female secondary workers’, ‘Low-educated middle-aged male primary workers’, and ‘Highly educated middle-aged male high-income workers’. Differences were observed in job-related and psychosocial characteristics among these types. Based on the analysis results, the study discussed policy and practical implications for each type of platform worker and proposed reviewing course content in the field of social welfare education for a better understanding and intervention for these workers.

Pressure Power Parity Insufficiency of Protection for the Digital Labour and Workers of the Gig Economy and the Dire Requirement of the Changes in the New Labour Code

Abstract The labour jurisprudence through a wide-ranging literature has approached the topic from different angles and categorized the term worker as either an independent contractor or as an employee. This definition of worker does very little to nothing in the lives of the workers of new forms of labour. There has been in the rise an emergence of the new forms of labour which is an umbrella term that also includes the gig worker and platform labour under the term. This shift in the workforce has enabled them to have a source of income and flexibility and has caused a huge increase in the gig workers at more than 17% CAGR [Compound Annual Growth Rate] has made the lawmakers difficult to classify them under the current law. The new amendment brought out in the parliament has proposed to codify the labour laws. law which is supposed to govern the gig worker has not clearly defined them in the definition. The new code which is supposed to clear the confusion has brought more mist in the terms of definition of who is a “gig worker” and “platform worker” which allows it to open interpretation, which makes the code still archaic and incomplete. Even the new bill fails to provide clarity regarding the workers of the new forms. This paper tries to analyse the current situation of the gig worker more exactly the platform workers and what would be the implication of the new labour code in the lives of the gig workers. This paper also proposes a separate bill that shall solely deal with that of the workers of the newer forms of business which shall be included in the new labour code.

CONCEPT OF WORKING TIME IN PLATFORM WORK

The labor law aims to protect the employee's health with the working periods and rest periods included in the organization of work, where the rules of public character are intense. To achieve this purpose, for example, weekly and daily working hours are limited by the legislator. These constraints are basically for persons covered by Turkish labor law and with employee status. However, although their legal status is controversial, platform workers perform for remuneration at certain hours of the week or day. Therefore, if a platform worker is accepted as an employee, she/he is evaluated within the scope of Turkish labor law, and the rules regarding the organization of work will be applied to her/him. However, the heterogeneity of online platforms, the different algorithms and business models of each platform, and the wide variety of tasks performed on the online platform can be challenging to calculate working periods. This article aims to contribute to calculating platform workers' working time.

Platform work, exploitation, and migrant worker resistance: Evidence from Berlin and London

AbstractFor migrant workers who do not have access to other means of income, the platform economy offers a viable yet exploitative alternative to the conventional labour market. Migrant workers are used as a source of cheap labour by platforms – and yet, they are not disempowered. They are at the heart of a growing platform worker movement. Across different international contexts, migrants have played a key role in leading strikes and other forms of collective action. This article traces the struggles of migrant platform workers in Berlin and London to explore how working conditions, work experiences, and strategies for collective action are shaped at the intersection of multiple precarities along lines of employment and migration status. Combining data collected through research by the Fairwork project with participant observation and ethnography, the article argues that migrant workers are more than an exploitable resource: they are harbingers of change.

A comparative assessment of digital platform worker protection in the EU and ASEAN

The rapid rise of the digital platform economy, connecting workers with employers, has transformed labor markets globally. This paper explores the regulatory approaches and policies safeguarding digital platform workers in the European Union (EU) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). While the EU demonstrates comprehensive labor protections, ASEAN's diverse economies present a tapestry of approaches. This analysis aims to provide valuable insights for policymakers, scholars, and stakeholders, shedding light on the evolving landscape of labor rights and the future of work in the digital age. This study uses a comparative research design to assess digital platform worker protection in the EU and ASEAN, highlighting differences, similarities, and emerging trends. It involves reviewing official documents and legislative texts from both regions to identify relevant policies and initiatives. This paper found that "digital labor" extends beyond the vast digital landscape, impacting various activities and transforming traditional tasks into digital processes managed by algorithms and automation. Platform workers in regions like the EU and ASEAN face challenges, including extended unpaid waiting times, lack of social security access, unpredictable earnings, and the downside of flexibility. The EU addresses these issues through comprehensive legislative efforts, emphasizing transparency, algorithmic oversight, and clear employment status definitions. In contrast, ASEAN's structure, based on consensus and voluntary cooperation, poses challenges. A binding regional agreement is challenging due to diverse socio-economic and cultural landscapes. Therefore, a non-binding declaration, supported by comprehensive guidelines, may offer a more practical approach. This declaration, symbolizing collective commitment, along with guidelines on best practices, could guide member states in tailoring their national policies to protect platform workers better.

Building the car while driving it: organising platform workers in the e-hailing sector in Kenya

The global decline in union representation offers a grim picture of the future of labour. Nevertheless, the proliferation of platform worker protest and organisation is a reminder that today’s precarious workers may well become tomorrow’s unionised working class. Most platform worker organisations in the Global South have emerged outside of the trade union movement. However, there has been a growing trend towards hybridisation as unions shift their focus to the platform economy in the quest for revitalisation. Drawing on the Power Resources Approach, this article analyses the sources of worker power in the e-hailing sector and how the Transport Workers Union in Kenya has sought to leverage sources of power to improve the conditions of work and social reproduction. The article argues that organising the e-hailing sector is akin ‘to building a car while driving it’. It involves experimentation, learning and innovation. In contrast to other types of digital work, e-hailing is geographically tethered, giving workers structural power. However, in the context of widespread informality, their power can be easily undermined. Weak regulation and platform workers’ misclassification as self-employed pose a further challenge to collective action. Nevertheless, there are emerging forms of organisation, from associations to cooperatives to the trade union. Whether TWU will be able to leverage this moment to wage an offensive struggle against platform companies will depend on its ability to incorporate emerging organisations into its structures, develop new strategies for collective bargaining, and build alliances with other working-class movements.

Silicon law of oligarchy: patterns of member participation in the decision-making of platform cooperatives

Platform cooperatives that are owned and governed by gig workers themselves have been proposed as a silver bullet to improve these workers’ influence on organizational decision-making. However, they remain relatively rare compared with dominant investor-owned platforms. Traditionally, worker cooperatives strive for alternative organizing based on the ideal of workplace democracy but are often faced with unequal participation by members in decision-making processes. To test for participation inequalities, this study used survey data (n = 418) from a network of four platform worker cooperatives in Italy. The results show that members with lower affective commitment towards their cooperative and less social capital among other members are less likely to participate, but that there is no effect of cooperative size and human capital.

Getting the first gig: Exploring the affective relations of accessing place-based platform labour

Platform labour has established itself as a new form of work in recent years. The platforms themselves advertise the flexibility and freedom of being an independent contractor as beneficial characteristics of their working arrangements. However, existing studies show that these promises do not always correspond to workers' lived experiences. While manifold research discusses the often precarious working conditions of established platform workers, less is known about gaining access to gig work in the first place. This paper draws attention to onboarding processes in the place-based gig economy. From a feminist geography perspective and building on geographies of affect, this paper analyses the process of getting a first paid gig, focusing on how emotions shape platform workers' daily lives. Through autoethnography, I reflect on my own experiences of trying to establish myself as paid platform worker. Contrary to common assumptions, I argue that access to the place-based gig economy is not necessarily straightforward. The paper shows how the labour mediation processes implemented by the platforms create in- and exclusions from the beginning. By letting the workers chase a first gig, the platform capitalises on extended unpaid labour, which is key in maintaining the value production in the gig economy itself.

The Different Rights of a ‘Worker’: A Comparative View

The academic debate on the protection of vulnerable persons performing work is often driven by the idea that a person’s status in labour law determines the rights they are entitled to. This approach overlooks the fact that the personal scope of labour rights is heterogeneous across EU Member States, with different groups enjoying the right to equal treatment, protection against unfair dismissal or the right to a minimum wage. The status of employee or worker does not necessarily confer a wide range of rights. This short article provides an overview of the different systems in terms of the consequences of this status. While highlighting this diversity in the personal scope of workers’ rights, it is argued that regulations that focus less on the relationship between the employer and the worker, and more on the impact of a regime on the public, provide more appropriate protection for persons who do not fit into the traditional employment relationship. Platform Worker, Definition of Worker, Personal Scope of Labour Rights, Labour Regulation Models

Role of court decisions in improving the quality of work life of platform workers

Judicial recognition of the relationship between a platform worker and a digital labor platform is one of the ways to improve the quality of work life of such a group of citizens. By acquiring the legal status of an employee, they fall under the protection of labor law. The article provides and analyzes examples of court decisions adopted in the UK and Kazakhstan, concludes on the formation of a global trend in the recognition of platform workers as employees working under an employment contract. In Russia, this method cannot be effectively implemented due to the lack of proper economic and legal conditions.

Platform cooperatives and the dilemmas of platform worker‐member participation

AbstractDespite the surge of interest in platform cooperatives, we have a limited understanding of the dynamics of platform worker‐member participation in these cooperatives. Drawing on interviews with 21 senior leaders and founders of platform worker cooperatives, we investigate the dynamics of platform worker‐member participation, finding that these cooperatives experience some successes and many challenges. We then build theory about how four distinct features of platform worker cooperatives—the facilitation of multihoming, the physically untethered nature of work, the relatively high importance of scale as a strategic imperative, and the relatively low importance of initial platform worker‐member investment—influence these participation dynamics. We find that the platform and worker cooperative organisational models are in tension with one another when brought together within a platform worker cooperative, leading to positive and negative effects on participation.

Managerial prerogative, property rights, and labor control in employment status disputes

Abstract This Article explores how managerial prerogative shapes disputes over employment classification and reveals a neglected but prominent feature in legal arguments about platform worker rights—the disputed relevance of a platform’s intellectual property rights. In classification disputes, instead of denying that it has a right to control how others perform services for it, the company often concedes its employer-like authority but offers an alternative rationale: managerial prerogative. The company argues, and judges often agree, that its labor control is not the exercise of employer authority but instead reflects a prerogative of enterprise ownership, like a right to protect property and determine product lines. Thus, managerial prerogative both explains labor control and exempts that control from the statutory duties that would otherwise attach under the legal tests. Platform companies appear to have taken notice of such cases and designed their work relationships around property-based rationales. For instance, Uber uses a software “license” in which drivers agree to Uber’s authority as a condition for accessing the app. The license depicts the terms upon which drivers must affirmatively cooperate with Uber to produce transportation as simply the negative duties not to interfere with Uber’s intellectual property. The Article concludes that we must reject appeals to managerial prerogative in employment classification disputes. To assume that a property-based rationale for labor control is inconsistent with employment is to misunderstand the legal basis of employment and the purpose of statutory labor law. The appeals also rely on dubious economic assumptions and conflate property rights with agreements about the use of property.

New Kid in Town: Platform Workers of the EU and Human Oversight of Automated Systems in Platform Work

The era of digitalization created new forms of employment along with complicated employment statuses, where existing labour laws lag in solving legal problems. The most recent development in the European Union is the proposed Platform Work Directive (PWD) against the raising concerns about the operation of digital labour platforms and people working through these platforms. By defining people as platform workers, the PWD offers significant changes. The PWD, with a broad presumption of employment, introduces new restrictions and obligations for digital labour platforms. Among those changes, introduced as a first at the EU level, is the human oversight of automated systems’ decisions. This paper analyses the term ‘platform worker’ in line with the PWD, mainly focusing on human oversight of automated systems in platform work.

Platform Work as a Source of Satisfaction – Its Merits and Demerits in the Opinion of Poles

Goal – the article aims to identify the characteristics of platform work (PW) as a potential source of satisfaction, based on the opinions of adult Poles. It draws on the approaches to job satisfaction derived from neoclassical economics and psychological concepts of work. Research methodology – the characteristics of PW were compiled through the review of extant literature. The opinions were collected in a diagnostic survey using an online questionnaire filled and returned by a representative sample of 3165 Poles. The survey identified a group declaring to have the knowledge of platform-mediated work opportunities, which ultimately contained 2099 respondents. To the best of the author’s knowledge, this was the first survey in Poland on the perception of the characteristics of work mediated through digital platforms conducted on such a large scale. Score/results – the study showed that major benefits of PW relate to contractor autonomy and concern the freedom of choice when and how long to work. The most frequently identified demerit, on the other hand, concerns work remuneration and it is the instability of income. Originality/value – the originality of the study stems from the quantitative representation of the opinions concerning the characteristics of platform-mediated work, divided into merits and demerits classified under three categories: labour income, contractor autonomy, and working conditions.