Plastic Particles Research Articles

Preparation of polystyrene microplastic particles by solvent-dissolution-precipitation

The reliable characterisation of the physicochemical properties of micro-sized plastic particles requires quality reference materials for establishing, calibrating, and validating methods. Heterogeneity in particle size, shape and surface chemistry are important factors for reference materials for them to mimic environmental microplastics. This paper introduces a method for preparing model polystyrene micro and nano plastic reference materials using a solvent dissolution-precipitation approach. Polystyrene microplastic particles with mean particle sizes of 0.35, 15.7, 30.0 and 52.3 micron were produced using solvent precipitation under different synthesis conditions with the particle present in a well dispersed and partially dispersed system. The particle size can be controlled by reducing the initial polystyrene-cyclohexane concentration and adjusting the volume of methanol. At a fixed polystyrene-cyclohexane ratio, particles within the specified size range were consistently produced. Chemical analysis using pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed that synthesized microplastics maintain their chemical properties, aligning with the original composition of virgin polystyrene pellets. A similar conclusion was drawn after examining the surface chemistry of the virgin and synthesised microplastic particles using ATR-FTIR analysis. The polystyrene particles produced in this way may be of use as reference materials and might be of interest for toxicological studies.

Microplastic contamination of food: sources, detection methods, and health implications

Microplastic contamination in food has emerged as a significant global concern, with potential implications for human health. Microplastics, defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, originate from various sources, including plastic waste fragmentation, synthetic textiles, and industrial processes. These particles have been detected in multiple food products, particularly seafood, drinking water, salt, honey, and processed foods, posing a risk of chronic exposure through ingestion. The small size of microplastics allows them to penetrate tissues and potentially enter systemic circulation, raising concerns about their bioaccumulation and toxicological effects. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the pathways through which microplastics enter the food chain, focusing on contamination in aquatic ecosystems and food packaging. We also examine the analytical techniques used for detecting microplastics in food, including spectroscopic methods, and discuss the challenges of standardizing detection protocols. Finally, the potential health risks, including toxicity and chemical leaching, are explored, alongside recommendations for future research and regulatory strategies.

Mechanisms underlying the detrimental impact of micro(nano)plastics on the stability of aerobic granular sludge: Interactions between micro(nano)plastics and extracellular polymeric substances

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) present in wastewater can pose a negative impact to aerobic granular sludge (AGS). Herein, this study found that MPs and NPs (20 mg/L) deteriorated the sludge settleability and granule integrity, resulting in a 15.7 % and 21.9 % decrease in the total nitrogen removal efficiency of the AGS system, respectively. This was possibly due to the reduction of the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) content. The subsequent analysis revealed that tyrosine, tryptophan, and humic acid-like substances in EPS exhibited a higher propensity for chemisorption and inhomogeneous multilayer adsorption onto NPs compared to MPs. The binding of EPS onto the surface of plastic particles increased the electronegativity of the MPs, but facilitated the aggregation of NPs through reducing the electrostatic repulsion, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of MPs/NPs on the AGS stability. Additionally, comprehensive analysis of the extended Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theory indicated that the suppressed aggregation of microorganisms was the internal mechanisms contributing to the inadequate stability of AGS induced by MPs/NPs. This study provides novel insights into the detrimental mechanisms of MPs/NPs on the AGS stability, highlighting the key role of EPS in maintaining the structural stability of AGS when exposed to MPs/NPs.

Sorption of trace metals by macro- and microplastics within intertidal sediments: Insights from a long-term field study within Burrard Inlet, British Columbia, Canada

Plastics are now the dominant fraction of anthropogenic marine debris and as a result of their long residence times, it is important to determine the threats that plastics present to marine ecosystems including their ability to sorb a diversity of environmental pollutants such as trace metals. To address this knowledge gap, this study examined the sorption of cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) by macro- and microplastics of polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) within marine intertidal sediments in a human-impacted area of Burrard Inlet (British Columbia, Canada). Trace metal sorption by macro- and microplastics was dependent on 1) polymer characteristics, notably the aging of the plastic over the duration of the field experiment as shown by the formation of new peaks via FTIR spectra; and 2) amounts of sediment organic matter, where the sorption of trace metals by the plastic particles decreased with increasing organic matter content (from 2.8 % to 15.8 %). Plastic particles play a minor role in trace metals sorption in the presence of organic matter at high concentrations as a result of competitive adsorption. Overall, the interaction of trace metals with sediment plastics was highly dynamic and to understand the key processes controlling this dynamic requires further study. This work contributed to our understanding on metal-plastic interactions in coastal intertidal sediments from urban environments and serve to support plastic pollution risk management and bioremediation studies.

Plastic particle impacts on the cardiovascular system and angiogenesis potential.

The extensive application of plastics in different sectors such as packaging, building, textiles, consumer products, and several industries has increased in recent years. Emerging data have confirmed that plastic wastes and segregates are problematic issues in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The decomposition of plastic particles (PPs) leads to the release of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) into the surrounding environment and entry of these particles will be problematic in unicellular and multicellular creatures. It was suggested that PPs can easily cross all biological barriers and reach different organs, especially the cardiovascular system, with the potential to modulate several molecular pathways. It is postulated that the direct interaction of PPs with cellular and subcellular components induces genotoxicity and cytotoxicity within the cardiovascular system. Meanwhile, being inert carriers, PPs can intensify the toxicity of other contaminants inside the cardiovascular system. Here, in this review article, several underlying mechanisms related to PP toxicity in the cardiovascular system were discussed in detail.

Mesoplastic and Microplastic Pollution in the Soil of Small-Scale Agricultural Areas in Iligan, Mindanao, Philippines

ABSTRACT The Philippines is primarily an agricultural country in which most Filipinos depend on the health of the soil for livelihood. Plastic pollution adversely affects agriculture by degrading soil quality, fertility, and crop growth. However, the prevalence of plastic particles such as mesoplastics (>5 mm to 25 mm) and microplastics (<5 mm) in agricultural soils in the Philippines remains poorly understood. This study investigated the prevalence of mesoplastics and microplastics in agricultural soils in Iligan City, Philippines. We collected soil samples from the six sampling stations in high-elevation and low-elevation sites. Mesoplastics and microplastics were examined through manual sorting, categorized based on color, shape, and size, and identified using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Mesoplastics were found to be more prevalent, averaging 2.22 items/kg compared to microplastics 0.83 items/kg. Mesoplastics were mainly white-colored (42%), mostly fragmented (55%), 5–10 mm in size (55%), and were predominantly polypropylene (85%). Microplastics were mainly transparent (40%), composed of fragments and film shapes(46%), and 3–4 mm (93%) in size. Polyethylene was the abundant microplastic polymer type (47%). It was observed that the low-elevation sites had a higher abundance of plastic particles, stressing the need to address local factors in tackling plastic pollution.

Natural sea water and artificial sea water are not equivalent in plastic leachate contamination studies.

Plastic contamination is one of the concerns of our age. With more than 150 million tons of plastic floating in the oceans, and a further 8 million tons arriving to the water each year, in recent times the scientific community has been studying the effects these plastics have on sea life both in the field and with experimental approaches. Laboratory based studies have been using both natural sea water and artificial sea water for testing various aspects of plastic contamination, including the study of chemicals leached from the plastic particles to the water. We set out to test this equivalence, looking at the leaching of heavy metals form plastic particles. We obtained leachates of polyvinyl chloride plastic pre-production nurdles both in natural and artificial sea water and determined the elements in excess from untreated water by Inductively coupled plasma - optical emission spectrometry. We then used these different leachates to assess developmental success in the tunicate Ciona intestinalis by treating fertilised eggs through their development to hatched larvae. Here we report that chemical analysis of polyvinyl chloride plastic pre-production pellet leachates shows a different composition in natural and artificial sea water. We find that the zinc leaching from the plastic particles is up to five times higher in natural seawater than in artificial seawater, and this can have an effect in the toxicological studies derived. Indeed, we observe different effects in the development of C. intestinalis when using leachates in natural or artificial sea water. We also observe that not all artificial sea waters are suitable for studying the development of the tunicate C. intestinalis. Our results show that, at least in this case, both types of water are not equivalent to produce plastic leachaetes and suggest that precaution should be taken when conclusions are derived from results obtained in artificial sea water.

Micro- and Nano-Plastics Induced Release of Protein-Enriched Microbial Exopolymeric Substances (EPSs) in Marine Environments

Plastics are produced, consumed, and disposed of worldwide, with more than eight million tons of plastic litter entering the ocean each year. Plastic litter accumulates in marine and terrestrial environments through a variety of pathways. Large plastic debris can be broken down into micro- and nano-plastic particles through physical/mechanical mechanisms and biologically or chemically mediated degradation. Their toxicity to aquatic organisms includes the scavenging of pollutant compounds and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Higher levels of ROS cause oxidative damages to microalgae and bacteria; this triggers the release of large amounts of exopolymeric substances (EPSs) with distinct molecular characteristics. This review will address what is known about the molecular mechanisms phytoplankton and bacteria use to regulate the fate and transport of plastic particles and identify the knowledge gaps, which should be considered in future research. In particular, the microbial communities react to plastic pollution through the production of EPSs that can reduce the plastic impacts via marine plastic snow (MPS) formation, allowing plastics to settle into sediments and facilitating their removal from the water column to lessen the plastic burden to ecosystems.

Plastic particles and fluorescent brightener co-modify Chlorella pyrenoidosa photosynthesis and a machine learning approach predict algae growth

Global release of plastics exerts various impacts on the ecological cycle, particularly on primary photosynthesis, while the impacts of plastic additives are unknown. As a carrier of fluorescent brightener, plastic particles co-modify Chlorella pyrenoidosa (C. pyrenoidosa) growth and its photosynthetic parameters. In general, adding to the oxidative damage induced by polystyrene, fluorescent brightener-doped polystyrene produces stronger visible light and the amount of negative charge is more likely to cause photodamage in C. pyrenoidosa leading to higher energy dissipation through conditioning than in the control group with a date of ETR (II) inhibition rate of 33 %, Fv/Fm inhibition rate of 8.3 % and Pm inhibition rate of 48.8 %. To elucidate the ecological effect of fluorescent brightener doping in plastic particles, a machine learning method is performed to establish a Gradient Boosting Machine model for predicting the impact of environmental factors on algal growth. Upon validation, the model achieved an average fitting degree of 88 %. Relative concentration of plastic particles and algae claimed the most significant factor by interpretability analysis of the machine learning. Additionally, both Gradient Boosting Machine prediction and experimental results indicate a matching result that plastic additives have an inhibitive effect on algal growth.

Electrochemical treatment of 4-chlorophenol by three-dimensional electrode reactors packed with plastic particles electrodes

The three-dimensional electrode reactors (TDER) filled with surface-modified plastic particles electrodes, was much more effective on electrolyzing 4-chlorophenol wastewater than by conventional electrolysis. The experimental results indicated that about 96.8 % of 4-chorophenol was degraded effectively, it was possibly decomposed into aromatic organic compounds and small-molecular organic acids by hydroxyl radicals generated on the surfaces of electrodes, and the biodegradability of treated 4-chlorophenol wastewater was also much more improved than that of the untreated, which would be more easily biologically degraded by the subsequent conventional activated sludge process. Furthermore, the 4-chorophenol wastewater could be co-degraded with high-concentration nitrate effectively, both 2-chlorophenol and 2,4-dichorophenol wastewaters were also similarly decomposed.

Metabolomic and biochemical disorders reveal the toxicity of environmental microplastics and benzo[a]pyrene in the marine polychaete Hediste diversicolor

Recently, the abundance of environmental microplastics (MPs) has become a global paramount concern. Besides the danger of MPs for biota due to their tiny size, these minute particles may act as vectors of other pollutants. This study focused on evaluating the toxicity of environmentally relevant concentrations of MPs (10 and 50 mg/kg sediment) and benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P, 1 µg/kg sediment), alone and in mixture, for 3 and 7 days in marine polychaete Hediste diversicolor, selected as a benthic bioindicator model. The exposure period was sufficient to confirm the bioaccumulation of both contaminants in seaworms, as well as the potential capacity of plastic particles to adsorb and vehiculate the B[a]P. Interestingly, increase of acidic mucus production was observed in seaworm tissues, indicative of a defense response. The activation of oxidative system pathways was demonstrated as a strategy to prevent lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, the comprehensive Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)-based metabolomics revealed significant disorders in amino acids metabolism, osmoregulatory process, energetic components, and oxidative stress related elements. Overall, these findings proved the possible synergic harmful effect of MPs and B[a]P even in small concentrations, which increases the concern about their long-term presence in marine ecosystems, and consequently their transfer and repercussions on marine fauna.

Measuring the Rotation of Polluting Plastic Particles

Measuring the Rotation of Polluting Plastic Particles

Survival and transfer potential of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium colonising polyethylene microplastics in contaminated agricultural soils

Agricultural environments are becoming increasingly contaminated with plastic pollution. Plastics in the environment can also provide a unique habitat for microbial biofilm, termed the ‘plastisphere’, which can also support the persistence of human pathogens such as Salmonella. Human enteric Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium can enter agricultural environments via flooding or from irrigation with contaminated water. Using soil mesocosms we quantified the ability of S. Typhimurium to persist on microplastic beads in two agriculturally relevant soils, under ambient and repeat flood scenarios. S. Typhimurium persisted in the plastisphere for 35 days in both podzol and loamy soils; while during multiple flood events was able to survive in the plastisphere for up to 21 days. S. Typhimurium could dissociate from the plastisphere during flooding events and migrate through soil in leachate, and importantly could colonise new plastic particles in the soil, suggesting that plastic pollution in agricultural soils can aid S. Typhimurium persistence and facilitate further dissemination within the environment. The potential for increased survival of enteric human pathogens in agricultural and food production environments due to plastic contamination poses a significant public health risk, particularly in potato or root vegetable systems where there is the potential for direct contact with crops.

Sources and distributions of microplastics and the hazards to plants, animals and human health:A review.

The increases in plastic production and inadequate plastic waste management have significantly increased the presence of microplastics (MPs) in the environment. MPs refer to plastic fragments and particles with a size smaller than 5 millimeters. Numerous studies have focused on the impacts of MPs on the environment and living organisms, and explored the potential mechanisms. Humans and other organisms can ingest or carry MPs through various pathways, which have a range of adverse effects on metabolism, functionality, and health. Additionally, due to their larger surface area, MPs could adsorb various pollutants, including heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants, severely affecting the health of animals and humans. Based on research on MPs in recent years, we reviewed the sources and distribution of MPs, examined exposure pathways, toxic effects, and toxicological mechanisms on plants, animals, and human bodies, and provided a prospective outlook on future directions for MP research. This review would be a reference for further assessments of the health risks of MPs.

Diet composition and plastic ingestion in Poecilia reticulata from urban streams.

Fish are excellent bioindicators and can reveal the presence of plastic in the environment. Diagnosing the composition and abundance of polymers in the fish diet makes it possible to evaluate their point sources and possible trophic transfers. We aimed to use the gastrointestinal contents of Poecilia reticulata in subtropical urban streams to detect the occurrence, shape, color, size, and chemical composition of polymers. For this, the diet of 240 individuals was analyzed using the volumetric method, and the microplastics (MPs; < 5mm) recorded were characterized using Raman spectroscopy. Individuals predominantly consumed organic detritus and aquatic macroinvertebrates, with higher proportions of Diptera. A total of 111 plastic particles (< 0.5 to 12mm) were recorded, and a subset of 14.4% was subjected to a micro-Raman spectrometer (830nm excitation). The occurrence of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polypropylene (PP) with phthalocyanine dye was recorded. Some fragments could not be identified by Raman, but they contained indigo blue dye. Poecilia reticulata had a predominantly detritivorous diet with a record of plastic consumption, reflecting environmental pollution. Our results demonstrate that individuals of P. reticulata have ingested MPs in urban streams. This reinforces the need for future studies on the relationship between the presence of MPs in fish and the level of pollution in streams, comparisons with species of different feeding habits, and the potentially harmful effects on the entire biota.

Meso- and micro-plastics contamination of water, sediments and fish species in coastal communities of Ondo State, Nigeria

Small plastic particles are contaminants of increasing concern in the environment due to the dangers they pose to organisms and their potential to enter human food chain. Plastic pollution of Coastal environments is a threat to biodiversity of aquatic resources, and to the health and livelihood of Coastal inhabitants. In this study, microplastics and mesoplastics were jointly determined in the water, sediments and fish species from five coastal communities in Ondo State, Nigeria. The plastic particles ranged from 1430 to 2844 particles/L and 2497–4844 particles/kg in the coastal waters and sediments, respectively. Attenuated total reflectance– Fourier transform infrared (ATR – FTIR) spectroscopic analyses led to the identification of eight (8) plastic polymer types, with low density polyethylene (LDPE) and polypropylene (PP) jointly constituting 64 % of the plastic particles (0.5–25 mm). Microplastics were discovered in the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) of every single individual of the four (4) species investigated. Clarias gariepinus had the highest concentration (13.3 ± 3.4 microplastics/individual) and showed tendency to accumulate microplastics as the fish size increased. Small plastic fibres were the most abundant shape in the coastal environment and in the fish species, pointing to the impact of artisanal fishing activities in the area. Detection of microplastics in all the fish species implies a risk of exposure to plastic particles by humans, who rely on these fishes for their protein source. Regulation of some single-use plastics (e.g. nylons, polybags and styrofoams) is proposed to curb the incidence of plastic particles in the Nigerian total environment.

Preparation and Characterization of Paving Blocks from Polyethylene-Based Plastic Waste and Natural Fibre

The current methods of managing plastic waste especially in developing countries have become an issue of environmental and public health concern globally. This has led environmentalists and scientists to work on finding day-to-day activities that can help to reduce the plastic waste disposal problem. Recycling and reuse of plastic waste into construction materials is a valid way to reduce the effect of this improper disposal of plastic waste. This will help to reduce the negative impact of the high cost of cement in the construction industry. In this research, polyethylene waste (table water sachet) was used as a replacement for cement in the construction of paving blocks. The sample with a 1:4 mixing ratio was found to have the highest compressive strength among the different mix ratio examined. Paving blocks were then produced with this mixing ratio from plastic-aggregates and plastic-aggregate-fibre and compared with the standard cement-aggregate paving blocks for their compressive and tensile strengths, water absorption, thickness swelling, density, and thermal properties (thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and horizontal burning rate). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) was also conducted on the paving blocks to determine the distribution of the particles of the blocks, the compatibility of the matrix, and their elemental composition. The results of the compressive strength test showed 18.1667 Nmm&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;-2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; for plastic-aggregate block, though lower when compared with the cement-aggregate block with a compressive strength of 21.6667 Nmm&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;-2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;. The plastic-aggregate block has the least water absorption value among the three samples. The 0.1350% and 1.8861% water absorption values obtained for the plastic-aggregate and plastic-aggregate-fibre bricks respectively showed an impressive water absorption which falls within the maximum of 5% water absorption for quality paving blocks. The plastic-aggregate and plastic-aggregate-fibre both also recorded lower density when compared with the cement-aggregate block, which gives them a logistic advantage over the cement-aggregate block in the case of transporting them from one location to another. The blocks were found to be stable at low temperatures. The SEM images of the plastic-aggregate and plastic-fibre-aggregate paving blocks clearly showed a consistent dispersion of the plastic waste particles within the aggregate matrix over that of the cement-aggregate paving block. Therefore, plastic-aggregate brick can be recommended for use as paving bricks for low-traffic roads, walkways, parks, and gardens, although there is need to carry out further studies on other material properties of the plastic-based paving block.

Microplastic abundance in the semi-enclosed Osaka Bay, Japan.

Anthropogenic particles in sea surface water of the semi-enclosed Osaka Bay were identified using stereomicroscopy, classified according to polymer type using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and categorized according to their physical characteristics. A total of 565.1 particles were detected in the water samples. However, plastic particles accounted for only 22.4% of the particles. Microplastic abundance in Osaka Bay showed seasonal variance from 8.9 ± 1.4 (in May) to 22.8 ± 6.5 particles/L (in July), which is consistent with previous reports in other semi-enclosed bays. Microplastics were mainly fragmented and fiber shaped, with gray and colorless/white coloration. The dominant polymer types were polypropylene, poly(methylmethacrylate), polyester, polyethylene, and polyethylene terephthalate. Generally, there were considerably higher abundances of microplastics at offshore sites compared with nearshore sites. The results of this study suggest that local river effluents and marine-related activities are probable sources of microplastics in Osaka Bay.

Multigenerational toxicity of microplastics derived from two types of agricultural mulching films to Folsomia candida

Degradation and fragmentation of mulching films represents an increasing source of microplastics (MPs, plastic particles 1 μm to 5 mm in size) to agricultural soils. MPs have been shown to affect many soil invertebrates, including springtails. However, these studies typically use test materials representing less environmentally relevant particle types, such as pristine uniform MPs, which do not represent the large range of particle sizes and morphologies found in the field. This study aimed at providing insight into the adverse effects of MPs originating from agricultural mulching films, by using artificially aged MPs derived from both biodegradable (starch-polybutadiene adipate terephthalate (PBAT)) blend, as well as conventional (linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)) plastic polymers. The soil dwelling springtail Folsomia candida was exposed to these MPs for five generations in order to elucidate population effects due to possible reproduction toxicity, endocrine disruption, mutagenesis or developmental toxicity. F. candida were exposed to 0, 0.0016, 0.008, 0.04, 0.2, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 % (w/w dry soil) MPs in Lufa 2.2 soil, which includes concentrations within the range of environmental relevance. Juveniles produced at each concentration were transferred to the next generation, with the parental, F2 and F4 generations being exposed for four weeks and F1 and F3 generations for five weeks. No concentration-dependent effects on F. candida survival or reproduction were observed in exposures to either of the MPs, in any of the generations. These results suggest that the particular MPs used in this study, derived from mulching films used on agricultural soils, may not be potent toxicants to F. candida, even after long-term exposure and at elevated concentrations.

2,7-Phloroglucinol-6,6′-bieckol from Ecklonia cava ameliorates nanoplastics-induced premature endothelial senescence and dysfunction

Nanoplastics (NPs), plastic particles ranging from 1 to 100 nm are ubiquitous environmental pollutants infiltrating ecosystems. Their small size and widespread use in various products raise concerns for human health, particularly their association with cardiovascular diseases (CVD). NPs can enter the human body through multiple routes, causing oxidative stress, and leading to the senescence and dysfunction of endothelial cells (ECs). Although there are potential natural compounds for treating CVD, there is limited research on preventing CVD induced by NPs. This study investigates the efficacy of Ecklonia cava extract (ECE) in preventing NPs-induced premature vascular senescence and dysfunction. Exposure of porcine coronary arteries (PCAs) and porcine coronary ECs to NPs, either alone or in combination with ECE, demonstrated that ECE mitigates senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) activity induced by NPs, thus preventing premature endothelial senescence. ECE also improved NPs-induced vascular dysfunction. The identified active ingredient in Ecklonia cava, 2,7’-Phloroglucinol-6,6′-bieckol (PHB), a phlorotannin, proved to be pivotal in these protective effects. PHB treatment ameliorated SA-β-gal activity, reduced oxidative stress, restored cell proliferation, and decreased the expression of cell cycle regulatory proteins such as p53, p21, p16, and angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT1), well known triggers for EC senescence. Moreover, PHB also improved NPs-induced vascular dysfunction by upregulating endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression and restoring endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation. In conclusion, Ecklonia cava and its active ingredient, PHB, exhibit potential as therapeutic agents against NPs-induced premature EC senescence and dysfunction, indicating a protective effect against environmental pollutants-induced CVDs associated with vascular dysfunction.