Marine Plastic Debris Research Articles

Analysis of small microplastics in coastal surface water samples of the subtropical island of Okinawa, Japan

Marine plastic debris is widely recognized as a global environmental issue. Small microplastic particles, with an upper size limit of 20 μm, have been identified as having the highest potential for causing damage to marine ecosystems. Having accurate methods for quantifying the abundance of such particles in a natural environment is essential for defining the extent of the problem they pose. Using an optical micro-Raman tweezers setup, we have identified the composition of particles trapped in marine aggregates collected from the coastal surface waters around the subtropical island of Okinawa. Chemical composition analysis at the single-particle level indicates dominance by low-density polyethylene, which accounted for 75% of the small microplastics analysed. The smallest microplastics identified were (2.53 ± 0.85) μm polystyrene. Our results show the occurrence of plastics at all test sites, with the highest concentration in areas with high human activities. We also observed additional Raman peaks on the plastics spectrum with decreasing debris size which could be related to structural modification due to weathering or embedding in organic matter. By identifying small microplastics at the single-particle level, we obtain some indication on their dispersion in the ocean which could be useful for future studies on their potential impact on marine biodiversity.

Parvularcula mediterranea sp. nov., isolated from marine plastic debris from Zakynthos Island, Greece.

A Gram-negative, dark orange-pigmented, aerobic, non-spore-forming, coccoid-shaped bacterium designated as ZS-1/3T was isolated from a floating plastic litter (polypropylene straw) sample, collected from shallow seawater near the public beach of Laganas on Zakynthos island, Greece. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated that the isolate is affiliated with the genus Parvularcula in the family Parvularculaceae. Its closest relatives are Parvularcula lutaonensis (98.09 %) and Parvularcula oceanus (95.89 %). The pH and temperature ranges for growth are pH 5-10 and 20-38 °C (optima, pH 7.0 and 28 °C). The predominant fatty acids are C18 : 1 ω7c (56.84 %), C16 : 0 (27.51 %), C18 : 0 (2.25 %) and C12 : 0 (1.42 %). The predominant respiratory quinone detected in strain ZS-1/3T is quinone-10 (Q10); the majority of detected polar lipids are glycolipid. The DNA G+C content is 62.5 mol%. Physiological and chemotaxonomic data further confirmed the distinctiveness of strain ZS-1/3T from other members of the genus Parvularcula. Thus, strain ZS-1/3T is considered to represent a novel species of the genus, for which the name Parvularcula mediterranea. sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is ZS-1/3T (=NCAIM B 02654T=CCM 9032T).

Star of The Week Programs Based on Peer Relationship for Children Social Emotional Development

Star of The Week Programs Based on Peer Relationship for Children Social Emotional Development

Using citizen science to evaluate extended producer responsibility policy to reduce marine plastic debris shows no reduction in pollution levels

As governments around the world grapple with the challenge of responding to increased plastic pollution, extended producer responsibility (EPR) policy, which shifts the responsibility for waste management of a product to producers, is quickly becoming a cornerstone of legislative approaches to this issue. However, the effectiveness of this policy has never been assessed in terms of reducing plastic marine debris. Understanding if a policy like EPR is having an effect requires collecting and analyzing information before and after a policy is introduced. Using British Columbia, Canada as a case study, we evaluate the influence of an EPR policy for packaging to reduce shoreline pollution. We use available citizen science data to demonstrate that there has been no reduction in pollution levels after the introduction of the policy. The findings also highlight some limitations when using citizen science data for a purpose it was not intended for. To effectively evaluate prevention of plastic pollution in the marine environment, plastic policy interventions require monitoring programs tailored to their specific requirements.

Systematic identification of microplastics in abyssal and hadal sediments of the Kuril Kamchatka trench.

The occurrence of microplastics throughout marine environments worldwide, from pelagic to benthic habitats, has become serious cause for concern. Hadal zones were recently described as the "trash bins of the oceans" and ultimate sink for marine plastic debris. The Kuril region covers a substantial area of the North Pacific Ocean and is characterised by high biological productivity, intense marine traffic through the Kuril straits, and anthropogenic activity. Moreover, strong tidal currents and eddy activity, as well as the influence of Pacific currents, have the potential for long distance transport and retention of microplastics in this area. To verify the hypothesis that the underlying Kuril Kamchatka Trench might accumulate microplastics from the surrounding environments and act as the final sink for high quantities of microplastics, we analysed eight sediment samples collected in the Kuril Kamchatka Trench at a depth range of 5143-8250m during the Kuril Kamchatka Biodiversity Studies II (KuramBio II) expedition in summer 2016. Microplastics were characterised via Micro Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy. All samples were analysed in their entirety to avoid inaccuracies due to extrapolations of microplastic concentrations and polymer diversities, which would otherwise be based on commonly applied representative aliquots. The number of microplastic particles detected ranged from 14 to 209kg-1 sediment (dry weight) with a total of 15 different plastic polymers detected. Polypropylene accounted for the largest proportion (33.2%), followed by acrylates/polyurethane/varnish (19%) and oxidized polypropylene (17.4%). By comparing extrapolated sample aliquots with in toto results, it was shown that aliquot-based extrapolations lead to severe under- or overestimations of microplastic concentrations, and an underestimation of polymer diversity.

Ocean acidification alters bacterial communities on marine plastic debris

The increasing quantity of plastic waste in the ocean is providing a growing and more widespread novel habitat for microbes. Plastics have taxonomically distinct microbial communities (termed the ‘Plastisphere’) and can raft these unique communities over great distances. In order to understand the Plastisphere properly it will be important to work out how major ocean changes (such as warming, acidification and deoxygenation) are shaping microbial communities on waste plastics in marine environments. Here, we show that common plastic drinking bottles rapidly become colonised by novel biofilm-forming bacterial communities, and that ocean acidification greatly influences the composition of plastic biofilm assemblages. We highlight the potential implications of this community shift in a coastal community exposed to enriched CO2 conditions.

Factors (type, colour, density, and shape) determining the removal of marine plastic debris by seabirds from the South Pacific Ocean: Is there a pattern?

Abstract While floating near the sea surface plastic debris interacts with a number of external factors, including many different organisms. Seabirds have the most extensive documented history of interactions with plastics, through ingestion, entanglement, and nest construction. In the present study, eight seabird species from the South Pacific Ocean were used as a proxy to determine potential patterns of removal of marine plastic debris, and three hypotheses were tested in relation to their feeding habits and nesting areas. Plastics from abiotic compartments (Chilean continental coast, South Pacific Gyre, and Rapa Nui beaches) and biotic compartments (surface‐feeding seabirds, diving seabirds, and nesting areas) were compared, according to their type, colour, shape, and density. Continental beaches had a relatively wide range of colours and shapes, with many non‐buoyant plastics. Samples from the South Pacific Gyre (SPG) and Rapa Nui (Easter Island) beaches comprised mainly hard, rounded, buoyant, and white/grey plastics. These results indicate that the composition of floating plastics from terrestrial sources changes during transport with oceanic currents, reducing the proportion of prey‐like plastics present in the subtropical gyres. The stomach contents of surface‐feeding and diving seabirds were dominated by hard, white/grey, and round plastic items, similar to plastics from the SPG, suggesting non‐selective (accidental or secondary) ingestion. Nesting areas had a more variable composition of brightly coloured plastics, suggesting a pattern of selective removal of plastics by seabirds, probably from oceanic sources. The present study reveals extensive interactions of seabirds with plastics on a broader scale, which is highly relevant given that the impacts of plastics on seabirds are increasing worldwide, compromising their efficient conservation.

Mapping plastic materials in an urban area: Development of the normalized difference plastic index using WorldView-3 superspectral data

Accurate and regularly updated information on plastic distribution in urban areas is of great significance for understanding the potential impact of plastic materials on human health and the environment. Remote sensing provides abundant data to identify and map plastics in the natural environment, such as marine plastic debris, and in a heterogeneous urban environment. In existing studies, airborne hyperspectral data were used to map plastic in urban areas. Recently available WorldView-3 data, with superspectral resolution, high spatial resolution and global coverage, have been used in mineral mapping and hydrocarbon detection in non-urban areas. These data provide new opportunities for plastic mapping in urban areas. This study proposes a novel plastic spectral index using WorldView-3 shortwave infrared bands, termed the Normalized Difference Plastic Index (NDPI), to quantify and map plastic materials in urban areas. The NDPI was evaluated in a dense urban area by comparing with the established hyperspectral Hydrocarbon Index (HI) and WorldView-3 Relative-absorption Band Depth (RBD) index. The results demonstrate that the NDPI was effective in visual evaluation, separability analysis and plastic material mapping, with superior performance than the HI and RBD indices. Thus, the proposed NDPI provides a useful measure for urban plastics mapping and analysis.

Plastics in the Pacific: Assessing risk from ocean debris for marine birds in the California Current Large Marine Ecosystem

Understanding the impact of plastic debris on marine birds is important for conservation of some species, and assessing risk from this anthropogenic threat requires high-quality distribution data for both marine birds and plastic debris. We applied a risk assessment framework to explore the relative risk for 19 marine bird species posed by plastic debris in the California Current Large Marine Ecosystem. We estimated exposure for each species by combining scores from (1) spatial overlap of predicted marine bird densities from habitat-association models and predicted density of marine plastics from terrestrial input and ocean circulation models, (2) species' foraging behavior, and (3) species' residence time in the California Current Large Marine Ecosystem. We estimated sensitivity for each species by combining scores for (1) mortality/sub-lethal effects of ingested plastic debris, (2) off-loading of plastics via regurgitation, (3) fecundity, and (4) age of breeding maturity. Overall risk from marine debris was greatest for more pelagic species and lowest for nearshore coastal species and generally agreed with published plastic ingestion studies. Notably, marine plastic debris densities are greatest at the western edge and offshore of the study domain, which likely explains the greater risk we observed in more pelagic species. This study is the first to look specifically at plastic debris risk to marine birds in the California Current Large Marine Ecosystem, and our results suggest that any attempts to mitigate the impacts of plastic debris on marine birds will likely require assessment and actions beyond the California Current into the broader Pacific basin.

Marine Plastic Debris: A New Surface for Microbial Colonization.

Plastics become rapidly colonized by microbes when released into marine environments. This microbial community-the Plastisphere-has recently sparked a multitude of scientific inquiries and generated a breadth of knowledge, which we bring together in this review. Besides providing a better understanding of community composition and biofilm development in marine ecosystems, we critically discuss current research on plastic biodegradation and the identification of potentially pathogenic "hitchhikers" in the Plastisphere. The Plastisphere is at the interface between the plastic and its surrounding milieu, and thus drives every interaction that this synthetic material has with its environment, from ecotoxicity and new links in marine food webs to the fate of the plastics in the water column. We conclude that research so far has not shown Plastisphere communities to starkly differ from microbial communities on other inert surfaces, which is particularly true for mature biofilm assemblages. Furthermore, despite progress that has been made in this field, we recognize that it is time to take research on plastic-Plastisphere-environment interactions a step further by identifying present gaps in our knowledge and offering our perspective on key aspects to be addressed by future studies: (I) better physical characterization of marine biofilms, (II) inclusion of relevant controls, (III) study of different successional stages, (IV) use of environmentally relevant concentrations of biofouled microplastics, and (V) prioritization of gaining a mechanistic and functional understanding of Plastisphere communities.

Microbial carrying capacity and carbon biomass of plastic marine debris.

Trillions of plastic debris fragments are floating at sea, presenting a substantial surface area for microbial colonization. Numerous cultivation-independent surveys have characterized plastic-associated microbial biofilms, however, quantitative studies addressing microbial carbon biomass are lacking. Our confocal laser scanning microscopy data show that early biofilm development on polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and glass substrates displayed variable cell size, abundance, and carbon biomass, whereas these parameters stabilized in mature biofilms. Unexpectedly, plastic substrates presented lower volume proportions of photosynthetic cells after 8 weeks, compared to glass. Early biofilms displayed the highest proportions of diatoms, which could influence the vertical transport of plastic debris. In total, conservative estimates suggest 2.1 × 1021 to 3.4 × 1021 cells, corresponding to about 1% of the microbial cells in the ocean surface microlayer (1.5 × 103 to 1.1 × 104 tons of carbon biomass), inhabit plastic debris globally. As an unnatural addition to sea surface waters, the large quantity of cells and biomass carried by plastic debris has the potential to impact biodiversity, autochthonous ecological functions, and biogeochemical cycles within the ocean.

Occurrence, Composition, and Relationships in Marine Plastic Debris on the First Long Beach Adjacent to the Land-Based Source, South China Sea

Land-based sources are the key sources of plastic debris, and mismanaged plastic debris can eventually enter the ocean via marine beaches. In this study, the spatial distribution and amount of plastic debris in the land-based source input zone of First Long Beach (FLB), China, which is a major tourist attraction, were first investigated. By using field investigation, sand samples were collected from two sections on FLB adjacent to land-based sources in December 2019, and the plastic debris in the sand samples was quantified and characterized in the laboratory. The amount of plastic debris ranged from 2 to 82 particles/m2 on this marine sand beach. There was a significant difference in plastic debris amount between the transects along the land-based source input zone (p < 0.05) due to the impacts of wind, ocean currents, and waves. The most abundant size of plastics was 0.5–2.5 cm (44.4%). Moreover, the most common color was white (60.9%). The most abundant shape of plastic debris fell into the fragment category (76.2%). The plastic debris amounts were significantly correlated with multiple sizes. Our results show that land-based wastewater discharge is a large plastic debris source on FLB under coastal water tide variation. Reduction strategies should be carried out by tracing the various land-based sources of plastic debris.

Characterization of petroleum-based plastics and their absorbed trace metals from the sediments of the Marina Beach in Chennai, India

BackgroundPollution by marine plastic debris becomes an increasing global concern. Characteristics of petroleum-based plastics pollution and its absorbed metals in Marina Beach, Chennai, in India are not reported yet. In this study, we first characterized the petroleum-based plastic debris and quantified the concentration of arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and lead (Pb) in plastics from the Marina Beach.ResultsA total of 2275 samples of the sediments were collected from three different locations across the Marina Beach. Our results showed that plastics debris mainly were three shapes as fiber, sphere, and fragment. The plastic fragments were mechanically eroded and chemically weathered observed by the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Five types of polymers were identified, including low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyamide (PA), and polycarbonate (PC). Their absorbed trace metals, such as Cr, As, Pb, and Cu, were determined by the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The level of As was high in most plastics. However, the highest levels of Pb, Cu, and Cr were in the PA, PP, and PA, respectively, implying the adsorption preference of plastics from different sources.ConclusionTaken together, this study first characterized petroleum-based plastics and their absorbed trace metals in the sediments of the Marina Beach, indicating that petroleum-based plastics acted as the vectors for the transportation of metal elements in the marine biome.

Transfer of Additive Chemicals From Marine Plastic Debris to the Stomach Oil of Northern Fulmars

For this study, the transfer of plastic additives to stomach oil of northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) has been investigated. Procellariiform seabirds retain oily components of their prey in theirs stomach as a means to store energy. A marine litter-derived microplastic reference mixture and separately a marine litter-derived polystyrene sample were added to stomach oils in an experiment. A total of 15 additives, including plasticizers, antioxidants, UV stabilizers, flame retardants, and preservatives were identified in the original plastic mixtures, and monitored in the leachates. These substances include those known for endocrine disruptive, carcinogenic and/or other negative effects on organisms. Stomach oil was exposed to these plastic materials and was sampled during a long-term experiment (0, 14 and 90 days exposure of plastic particles in stomach oil) and a subsequent short-term detailed study (8 hours, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 21 days). Five of the monitored substances were shown to strongly leach from the microplastic reference mixture into the stomach oil during the experiment. Four substances were identified in a marine litter-derived polystyrene foam, of which two leached into stomach oil. Leaching of harmful plastic additives to the stomach oil of fulmars may be of concern, as fulmars regularly ingest plastics which are retained and gradually ground in the gizzard before passage to the intestines and excretion.

Viet Nam: Sources, Impacts and Management of Plastic Marine Debris

Marine environmental pollution caused by plastic wastes has been studied for 50 years, although that research has produced limited recommendations regarding reduction, prevention and control of such wastes. The large annual volume of such pollution e

Rapid Production of Micro- and Nanoplastics by Fragmentation of Expanded Polystyrene Exposed to Sunlight.

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a common plastic marine debris found in oceans worldwide. The unique "foamed" structure of EPS, which is composed of thin layers, is more vulnerable to fragmentation than bulk plastics. However, the production rate of micro- and nanoplastics by the fragmentation of EPS following sunlight exposure remains largely unknown. Here, we determined the fragmentation rate and weight loss of EPS in an outdoor weathering experiment that ran for 24 months. It took only 1 month for the weight of an EPS box to decline by 5% due to photodegradation, and approximately 6.7 × 107 micro- and nanoparticles/cm2 could be produced at a latitude of 34 °N. These results indicate that macro EPS debris can continually produce a massive number of particles within a relatively short exposure duration. The findings provide useful information to inform policymakers how rapidly to remove "likely fragmented" plastic litter from the environment.

Life cycle impact assessment of microplastics as one component of marine plastic debris

Plastic pollution in marine environments is a severe problem in the world due to misuse and mismanagement of the materials. Microplastics are a specific form of pollutants in this context and its handling is very difficult due to its very small size of particulates. Currently, the impacts of marine plastic debris are not considered. However, this type of particulates can be assessed like other emissions with the systematic and quantifiable approach in life cycle assessment (LCA). It was our goal to find and test first methodological approaches for including impacts of marine litter of microplastics to LCA. The Medellin Declaration on Marine Litter in Life Cycle Assessment and Management raised this issue in 2017 and called for LCA to address the challenges of marine litter. The present research paper focuses on how to integrate plastic debris impacts with focus on microplastics into LCA and gives a suggestion for an assessment approach. Based on a literature review, we considered various impacts to the marine environment of microplastics linked with their kinetics of the fragmentation and degradation. Subsequently, we developed a characterization LCA model for microplastics in the marine environment. We addressed therein the fate of microplastics and their specific eco-toxic effects to different organisms. We compared the impacts of different types of polymers as well and showed how these can be integrated in an assessment using the new characterization model. The assessment of marine litter impacts in LCA was strongly dependent on the number of microplastic particles produced from the original litter over time. These impacts were derived from measurements of the number of microparticles, their densities in the marine environment and their impacts to different organisms. The new characterization model includes the relationship between fragmentation and degradation and can be used for impact assessments within LCA. The question where we did not find a finally satisfying solution is the issue of the length of the time horizon of the assessment or the discounting. Those are regarded as subjective and are encountered with sensitivity or scenario analysis. Results from different time horizons can be aggregated to one figure or can be compared separately. Further investigations should be taken for a better understanding of this issue and for concrete solutions because their influence on the results of life cycle assessments is often fundamental.

Rapid Identification of Marine Plastic Debris via Spectroscopic Techniques and Machine Learning Classifiers.

To advance our understanding of the environmental fate and transport of macro- and micro-plastic debris, robust and reproducible methods, technologies, and analytical approaches are necessary for in situ plastic-type identification and characterization. This investigation compares four spectroscopic techniques: attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), near-infrared (NIR) reflectance spectroscopy, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, coupled to seven classification methods, including machine learning classifiers, to determine accuracy for identifying type of both consumer plastics and marine plastic debris (MPD). With machine learning classifiers, consumer plastic types were identified with 99, 91, 97, and 70% success rates for ATR-FTIR, NIR reflectance spectroscopy, LIBS, and XRF, respectively. The classification of MPD had similar or lower success rates, likely arising from alterations to the plastic from environmental weathering processes with success rates of 99, 81, 76, and 66% for ATR-FTIR, NIR reflectance spectroscopy, LIBS, and XRF, respectively. Success rates indicate that ATR-FTIR, NIR reflectance spectroscopy, and LIBS coupled with machine learning classifiers can be used to identify both consumer and environmental plastic samples.

Spatio-temporal distribution of plastic and microplastic debris in the surface water of the Bohai Sea, China

As an emerging marine environmental issue, marine plastic debris pollution has attracted worldwide attention. Studies have covered more and more areas of the world's oceans. To further understand the sources and variation of marine plastic debris in the surface water of the Bohai Sea, in this study, plastic debris was collected during the four seasons of 2016–2017. The results showed the mean density of plastic debris over these seasons was 0.49 ± 0.18 particles/m3. Macro-, meso-, and micro- plastics accounted for 5%, 26%, and 69% of the total number of plastic debris, respectively. The density of the microplastics was 0.35 ± 0.13 particles/m3. The highest density was found in spring, followed by summer and winter, and the lowest in autumn. High distribution densities were observed in the Liaodong Bay and the Bohai Strait, which were attributed to the dynamics of the rim current, terrain, and fishery activities. Capsule abstractRiverine input, dynamics of the rim current, terrain, and fishery activities contribute to the variations in marine plastic debris in the surface water of the Bohai Sea.

Impacts of marine plastic on ecosystem services and economy: State of South African research

In addition to its direct impacts on marine ecology and biota, marine plastic debris can affect the delivery of ecosystem services, with resulting impacts on human well-being, society and the economy. It is important to quantify these impacts in economic terms, so as to be able to provide evidence-based support for an appropriate policy response. We review the South African literature on the impacts of marine plastic debris on ecosystem services and on the economy, in order to identify relevant knowledge gaps. The gaps are found to be significant. Some research has been conducted in terms of impacts relating to recreation, aesthetics and tourism and the costs of beach and harbour clean-ups. However, there is a significant lack of research regarding impacts on ecosystem services relating to fisheries and aquaculture, heritage, habitat provision, biodiversity, and nutrient cycles. There is also a significant lack of research regarding direct economic impacts on the transport/shipping and fisheries industries, indirect economic impacts (such as costs associated with health-related impacts), and non-market costs (e.g. impacts on scenic, cultural and spiritual values). More research is needed in South Africa to address these gaps, in order to inform policy aimed at addressing plastic waste and marine plastic debris.
 Significance:
 
 This review highlights the knowledge gaps in terms of the impacts of marine plastics on ecosystem services and on the economy in South Africa, which are important to understand in order to be able to direct funding for future research in this domain. Without better knowledge of the economic impacts of marine plastic debris, it is difficult to assess the costs of inaction, and therefore to inform an appropriate policy response for tackling the problem of marine plastic debris.